Document Type : Review Article
Authors
1 Department of Micrbiology, Faculty of biology, Islamic Azad University, North Branch,Tehran, Iran
2 MSc Microbiology from Shridhar University Rajasthan, Now doing job as a microbiologist in clinical laboratory ludhiana City, punjab State, India.
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common type of cancer worldwide. It develops through a gradual accumulation of genetic and epigenetic changes, leading to the transformation of normal colonic mucosa into invasive cancer. Approximately 90% of colorectal cancer cases are sporadic without family history or genetic predisposition, while in less than 10% a causative genetic event has been identified. Since personalized medicine works on three subjects of determining disease indices in people, choosing the best therapeutic method and predicting disease relapse, it seems that regarding colorectal cancer, more researches are required in order to achieve favorable results. The recent advances in molecular biology and the genetic classification of CRC are essential to individualize these therapies and will be basic for improving the treatment in the next years. We are optimistic about the success of personalized medicine for this disease.
Keywords
1.Adams, Richard A., et al. “Epiregulin (EREG) and amphiregulin
(AREG) gene expression to predict response to cetuximab
therapy in combination with oxaliplatin (Ox) and 5FU in first-
line treatment of advanced colorectal cancer (aCRC).” (2012):
3516-3516.
2.Alymani NA, Smith MD, Williams DJ, Petty RD. Predictive
biomarkers for personalised anti-cancer drug use: discovery to
clinical implementation. European Journal of Cancer. 2010 Mar
1;46(5):869-79.
3.Amado, Rafael G., et al. “Wild-type KRAS is required for
panitumumab efficacy in patients with metastatic colorectal
cancer.” (2008): 1626-1634.
4.Baker JB, Dutta D, Watson D, Maddala T, Munneke BM, Shak
S, Rowinsky EK, Xu LA, Harbison CT, Clark EA, Mauro DJ.
Tumour gene expression predicts response to cetuximab in
patients with KRAS wild-type metastatic colorectal cancer.
British journal of cancer. 2011 Feb;104(3):488-95.
5.Baldus SE, Schaefer KL, Engers R, Hartleb D, Stoecklein NH,
Gabbert HE. Prevalence and heterogeneity of KRAS, BRAF,
and PIK3CA mutations in primary colorectal adenocarcinomas
and their corresponding metastases. Clinical Cancer Research.
2010 Feb 1;16(3):790-9.
6.Safaei A, Sobhi S, Rezaei-Tavirani M, Zali MR. Genomic and
epigenetic instability in colorectal cancer. Iran J Cancer Prev.
2013;6:54-63.
7.Blanco-Calvo M, Concha Á, Figueroa A, Garrido F, Valladares-
Ayerbes M. Colorectal cancer classification and cell
heterogeneity: a systems oncology approach. International
journal of molecular sciences. 2015 Jun;16(6):13610-32.
8.Rezaie-Tavirani M, Fayazfar S, Heydari-Keshel S, Rezaee MB,
Zamanian-Azodi M, Rezaei-Tavirani M, Khodarahmi R. Effect
of essential oil of Rosa Damascena on human colon cancer cell
line SW742. Gastroenterology and Hepatology from bed to
bench. 2013;6(1):25.
9.Ewing I, Hurley JJ, Josephides E, Millar A. The molecular genetics
of colorectal cancer. Frontline gastroenterology. 2014 Jan
1;5(1):26-30.
10.Lao VV, Grady WM. Epigenetics and colorectal cancer. Nature
reviews Gastroenterology & hepatology. 2011 Dec;8(12):686-
700.
11.Ferlay J, Shin HR, Bray F, Forman D, Mathers C, Parkin
DM. Estimates of worldwide burden of cancer in 2008:
GLOBOCAN 2008. International journal of cancer. 2010 Dec
15;127(12):2893-917.
12.Sobin LH, Gospodarowicz MK, Wittekind C, editors. TNM
classification of malignant tumours. John Wiley & Sons; 2011
Aug 31.
13.Chan GH, Chee CE. Making sense of adjuvant chemotherapy
in colorectal cancer. Journal of gastrointestinal oncology. 2019
Dec;10(6):1183.
14.Ranieri G, Laface C, Laforgia M, De Summa S, Porcelli M,
Macina F, Ammendola M, Molinari P, Lauletta G, Di Palo
A, Rubini G. Bevacizumab plus FOLFOX-4 combined with
deep electro-hyperthermia as first-line therapy in metastatic
colon cancer: A pilot study. Frontiers in Oncology. 2020 Nov
3;10:2387.
15.Baraniskin A, Buchberger B, Pox C, Graeven U, Holch JW,
Schmiegel W, Heinemann V. Efficacy of bevacizumab in first-
line treatment of metastatic colorectal cancer: a systematic
review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Cancer. 2019
Jan 1;106:37-44.
16.Lugli A. Towards a molecular classification of colorectal cancer.
Frontiers in oncology. 2015 Feb 25;5:46.
17.Sinicrope FA, Okamoto K, Kasi PM, Kawakami H. Molecular
biomarkers in the personalized treatment of colorectal
cancer. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 2016 May
1;14(5):651-8.
18.Zocche DM, Ramirez C, Fontao FM, Costa LD, Redal MA.
Global impact of KRAS mutation patterns in FOLFOX treated
metastatic colorectal cancer. Frontiers in genetics. 2015 Mar
30;6:116.
19.Fearon ER, Vogelstein B. A genetic model for colorectal
tumorigenesis. cell. 1990 Jun 1;61(5):759-67.
20.Ma H, Brosens LA, Offerhaus GJ, Giardiello FM, de Leng WW, Montgomery EA. Pathology and genetics of hereditary
colorectal cancer. Pathology. 2018 Jan 1;50(1):49-59.
21. Schatoff EM, Goswami S, Zafra MP, Foronda M, Shusterman
M, Leach BI, Katti A, Diaz BJ, Dow LE. Distinct colorectal
cancer–associated apc mutations dictate response to tankyrase
inhibition. Cancer discovery. 2019 Oct 1;9(10):1358-71.
22. Aghababa, Amirhossein Akbari, and Tarun Kumar. “The
Importance of Personalized medicine in Colorectal Cancer.”
gene expression 6 (2021): 7.
23.Bertotti A, Migliardi G, Galimi F, Sassi F, Torti D, Isella C,
Corà D, Di Nicolantonio F, Buscarino M, Petti C, Ribero D. A
molecularly annotated platform of patient-derived xenografts
(“xenopatients”) identifies HER2 as an effective therapeutic
target in cetuximab-resistant colorectal cancer. Cancer discovery.
2011 Nov 1;1(6):508-23.
24.Blanke CD, Goldberg RM, Grothey A, Mooney M, Roach
N, Saltz LB, Welch JJ, Wood WA, Meropol NJ. KRAS and
colorectal cancer: ethical and pragmatic issues in effecting
real-time change in oncology clinical trials and practice. The
oncologist. 2011 Aug;16(8):1061.
25.Bokemeyer C, Bondarenko I, Makhson A, Hartmann JT, Aparicio
J, De Braud F, Donea S, Ludwig H, Schuch G, Stroh C, Loos
AH. Fluorouracil leucovorin and oxaliplatin with and without
cetuximab in the first-line treatment of metastatic colorectal
cancer. American Society of Clinical Oncology.
26.Pritzker KP, Pritzker LB. Bioinformatics advances for clinical
biomarker development. Expert opinion on medical diagnostics.
2012 Jan 1;6(1):39-48.
27.Monzon FA, Ogino S, Hammond ME, Halling KC, Bloom
KJ, Nikiforova MN. The role of KRAS mutation testing
in the management of patients with metastatic colorectal
cancer. Archives of pathology & laboratory medicine. 2009
Oct;133(10):1600-6.
28.Pander J, Gelderblom H, Antonini NF, Tol J, van Krieken JH,
van der Straaten T, Punt CJ, Guchelaar HJ. Correlation of
FCGR3A and EGFR germline polymorphisms with the efficacy
of cetuximab in KRAS wild-type metastatic colorectal cancer.
European journal of cancer. 2010 Jul 1;46(10):1829-34.
29.Qian W, Feng Y, Li J, Peng W, Gu Q, Zhang Z, Ji D, Wang Q,
Zhang D, Sun Y. Construction of ceRNA networks reveals
differences between distal and proximal colon cancers.
Oncology reports. 2019 May 1;41(5):3027-40.
30.Mori Y, Kudo SE, Misawa M, Takeda K, Kudo T, Itoh H, Oda M,
Mori K. How Far Will Clinical Application of AI Applications
Advance for Colorectal Cancer Diagnosis?. Journal of the anus,
rectum and colon. 2020 Apr 28;4(2):47-50.
Chatterjee K, Mukherjee P, Hoque J, Das M, Saha S. Extended RAS
mutations (KRAS and NRAS) in patients with colorectal cancers
in eastern India: An observational study. Cancer Research,
Statistics, and Treatment. 2021 Apr 1;4(2):244.
32. Charlton ME, Kahl AR, Greenbaum AA, Karlitz JJ, Lin C,
Lynch CF, Chen VW. KRAS testing, tumor location, and survival
in patients with stage IV colorectal cancer: SEER 2010–2013.
Journal of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network. 2017
Dec 1;15(12):1484-93.
33.Karapetis CS, Khambata-Ford S, Jonker DJ, O’Callaghan CJ, Tu
D, Tebbutt NC, Simes RJ, Chalchal H, Shapiro JD, Robitaille
S, Price TJ. K-ras mutations and benefit from cetuximab in
advanced colorectal cancer. New England Journal of Medicine.
2008 Oct 23;359(17):1757-65.
34.de la Fouchardière C, Cohen R, Malka D, Guimbaud R, Bourien
H, Lièvre A, Cacheux W, Artru P, François E, Gilabert M,
Samalin‐Scalzi E. Characteristics of BRAFV600E mutant,
deficient mismatch repair/proficient mismatch repair, metastatic
colorectal cancer: A multicenter series of 287 patients. The
oncologist. 2019 Dec;24(12):e1331.
35.Jover R, Zapater P, Castells A, Llor X, Andreu M, Cubiella J, Piñol
V, Xicola RM, Bujanda L, Reñé JM, Clofent J. Mismatch repair
status in the prediction of benefit from adjuvant fluorouracil
chemotherapy in colorectal cancer. Gut. 2006 Jun 1;55(6):848-
55.
36.Knapen DG, Cherny NI, Zygoura P, Latino NJ, Douillard JY,
Dafni U, de Vries EG, de Groot DJ. Lessons learnt from scoring
adjuvant colon cancer trials and meta-analyses using the ESMO-
Magnitude of Clinical Benefit Scale V. 1.1. ESMO open. 2020
Jan 1;5(5):e000681.
37.Codes AP. Medical Oncology Services: Colon Cancer;
Neoadjuvant or Adjuvant Therapy. POLICY. 2019;7:158.
38.Ma Y, Zhang P, Wang F, Liu W, Yang J, Qin H. An integrated
proteomics and metabolomics approach for defining oncofetal
biomarkers in the colorectal cancer. Annals of surgery. 2012 Apr
1;255(4):720-30.
39.Ogino S, Fuchs CS, Giovannucci E. How many molecular
subtypes? Implications of the unique tumor principle in
personalized medicine. Expert review of molecular diagnostics.
2012 Jul 1;12(6):621-8.
40. Fearon ER, Vogelstein B. A genetic model for colorectal
tumorigenesis. cell. 1990 Jun 1;61(5):759-67.
41.Gustavsson B, Carlsson G, Machover D, Petrelli N, Roth A,
Schmoll HJ, Tveit KM, Gibson F. A review of the evolution of
systemic chemotherapy in the management of colorectal cancer.
Clinical colorectal cancer. 2015 Mar 1;14(1):1-0.
42.Sebio A, Stintzing S, Stremitzer S, Zhang W, Lenz HJ.
Panitumumab: leading to better overall survival in metastatic
colorectal cancer?. Expert opinion on biological therapy. 2014
Apr 1;14(4):535-48.
43.Saridaki Z, Souglakos J, Georgoulias V. Prognostic and predictive
significance of MSI in stages II/III colon cancer. World Journal
of Gastroenterology: WJG. 2014 Jun 14;20(22):6809.
44.Gonzalez-Pons M, Cruz-Correa M. Colorectal cancer biomarkers:
where are we now?. BioMed research international. 2015
Oct;2015.
45.Newton KF, Newman W, Hill J. Review of biomarkers in
colorectal cancer. Colorectal disease. 2012 Jan;14(1):3-17.
46.Ramos E, Callier SL, Rotimi CN. Why personalized medicine
will fail if we stay the course. Personalized medicine. 2012
Nov;9(8):839-47.
(AREG) gene expression to predict response to cetuximab
therapy in combination with oxaliplatin (Ox) and 5FU in first-
line treatment of advanced colorectal cancer (aCRC).” (2012):
3516-3516.
2.Alymani NA, Smith MD, Williams DJ, Petty RD. Predictive
biomarkers for personalised anti-cancer drug use: discovery to
clinical implementation. European Journal of Cancer. 2010 Mar
1;46(5):869-79.
3.Amado, Rafael G., et al. “Wild-type KRAS is required for
panitumumab efficacy in patients with metastatic colorectal
cancer.” (2008): 1626-1634.
4.Baker JB, Dutta D, Watson D, Maddala T, Munneke BM, Shak
S, Rowinsky EK, Xu LA, Harbison CT, Clark EA, Mauro DJ.
Tumour gene expression predicts response to cetuximab in
patients with KRAS wild-type metastatic colorectal cancer.
British journal of cancer. 2011 Feb;104(3):488-95.
5.Baldus SE, Schaefer KL, Engers R, Hartleb D, Stoecklein NH,
Gabbert HE. Prevalence and heterogeneity of KRAS, BRAF,
and PIK3CA mutations in primary colorectal adenocarcinomas
and their corresponding metastases. Clinical Cancer Research.
2010 Feb 1;16(3):790-9.
6.Safaei A, Sobhi S, Rezaei-Tavirani M, Zali MR. Genomic and
epigenetic instability in colorectal cancer. Iran J Cancer Prev.
2013;6:54-63.
7.Blanco-Calvo M, Concha Á, Figueroa A, Garrido F, Valladares-
Ayerbes M. Colorectal cancer classification and cell
heterogeneity: a systems oncology approach. International
journal of molecular sciences. 2015 Jun;16(6):13610-32.
8.Rezaie-Tavirani M, Fayazfar S, Heydari-Keshel S, Rezaee MB,
Zamanian-Azodi M, Rezaei-Tavirani M, Khodarahmi R. Effect
of essential oil of Rosa Damascena on human colon cancer cell
line SW742. Gastroenterology and Hepatology from bed to
bench. 2013;6(1):25.
9.Ewing I, Hurley JJ, Josephides E, Millar A. The molecular genetics
of colorectal cancer. Frontline gastroenterology. 2014 Jan
1;5(1):26-30.
10.Lao VV, Grady WM. Epigenetics and colorectal cancer. Nature
reviews Gastroenterology & hepatology. 2011 Dec;8(12):686-
700.
11.Ferlay J, Shin HR, Bray F, Forman D, Mathers C, Parkin
DM. Estimates of worldwide burden of cancer in 2008:
GLOBOCAN 2008. International journal of cancer. 2010 Dec
15;127(12):2893-917.
12.Sobin LH, Gospodarowicz MK, Wittekind C, editors. TNM
classification of malignant tumours. John Wiley & Sons; 2011
Aug 31.
13.Chan GH, Chee CE. Making sense of adjuvant chemotherapy
in colorectal cancer. Journal of gastrointestinal oncology. 2019
Dec;10(6):1183.
14.Ranieri G, Laface C, Laforgia M, De Summa S, Porcelli M,
Macina F, Ammendola M, Molinari P, Lauletta G, Di Palo
A, Rubini G. Bevacizumab plus FOLFOX-4 combined with
deep electro-hyperthermia as first-line therapy in metastatic
colon cancer: A pilot study. Frontiers in Oncology. 2020 Nov
3;10:2387.
15.Baraniskin A, Buchberger B, Pox C, Graeven U, Holch JW,
Schmiegel W, Heinemann V. Efficacy of bevacizumab in first-
line treatment of metastatic colorectal cancer: a systematic
review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Cancer. 2019
Jan 1;106:37-44.
16.Lugli A. Towards a molecular classification of colorectal cancer.
Frontiers in oncology. 2015 Feb 25;5:46.
17.Sinicrope FA, Okamoto K, Kasi PM, Kawakami H. Molecular
biomarkers in the personalized treatment of colorectal
cancer. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 2016 May
1;14(5):651-8.
18.Zocche DM, Ramirez C, Fontao FM, Costa LD, Redal MA.
Global impact of KRAS mutation patterns in FOLFOX treated
metastatic colorectal cancer. Frontiers in genetics. 2015 Mar
30;6:116.
19.Fearon ER, Vogelstein B. A genetic model for colorectal
tumorigenesis. cell. 1990 Jun 1;61(5):759-67.
20.Ma H, Brosens LA, Offerhaus GJ, Giardiello FM, de Leng WW, Montgomery EA. Pathology and genetics of hereditary
colorectal cancer. Pathology. 2018 Jan 1;50(1):49-59.
21. Schatoff EM, Goswami S, Zafra MP, Foronda M, Shusterman
M, Leach BI, Katti A, Diaz BJ, Dow LE. Distinct colorectal
cancer–associated apc mutations dictate response to tankyrase
inhibition. Cancer discovery. 2019 Oct 1;9(10):1358-71.
22. Aghababa, Amirhossein Akbari, and Tarun Kumar. “The
Importance of Personalized medicine in Colorectal Cancer.”
gene expression 6 (2021): 7.
23.Bertotti A, Migliardi G, Galimi F, Sassi F, Torti D, Isella C,
Corà D, Di Nicolantonio F, Buscarino M, Petti C, Ribero D. A
molecularly annotated platform of patient-derived xenografts
(“xenopatients”) identifies HER2 as an effective therapeutic
target in cetuximab-resistant colorectal cancer. Cancer discovery.
2011 Nov 1;1(6):508-23.
24.Blanke CD, Goldberg RM, Grothey A, Mooney M, Roach
N, Saltz LB, Welch JJ, Wood WA, Meropol NJ. KRAS and
colorectal cancer: ethical and pragmatic issues in effecting
real-time change in oncology clinical trials and practice. The
oncologist. 2011 Aug;16(8):1061.
25.Bokemeyer C, Bondarenko I, Makhson A, Hartmann JT, Aparicio
J, De Braud F, Donea S, Ludwig H, Schuch G, Stroh C, Loos
AH. Fluorouracil leucovorin and oxaliplatin with and without
cetuximab in the first-line treatment of metastatic colorectal
cancer. American Society of Clinical Oncology.
26.Pritzker KP, Pritzker LB. Bioinformatics advances for clinical
biomarker development. Expert opinion on medical diagnostics.
2012 Jan 1;6(1):39-48.
27.Monzon FA, Ogino S, Hammond ME, Halling KC, Bloom
KJ, Nikiforova MN. The role of KRAS mutation testing
in the management of patients with metastatic colorectal
cancer. Archives of pathology & laboratory medicine. 2009
Oct;133(10):1600-6.
28.Pander J, Gelderblom H, Antonini NF, Tol J, van Krieken JH,
van der Straaten T, Punt CJ, Guchelaar HJ. Correlation of
FCGR3A and EGFR germline polymorphisms with the efficacy
of cetuximab in KRAS wild-type metastatic colorectal cancer.
European journal of cancer. 2010 Jul 1;46(10):1829-34.
29.Qian W, Feng Y, Li J, Peng W, Gu Q, Zhang Z, Ji D, Wang Q,
Zhang D, Sun Y. Construction of ceRNA networks reveals
differences between distal and proximal colon cancers.
Oncology reports. 2019 May 1;41(5):3027-40.
30.Mori Y, Kudo SE, Misawa M, Takeda K, Kudo T, Itoh H, Oda M,
Mori K. How Far Will Clinical Application of AI Applications
Advance for Colorectal Cancer Diagnosis?. Journal of the anus,
rectum and colon. 2020 Apr 28;4(2):47-50.
Chatterjee K, Mukherjee P, Hoque J, Das M, Saha S. Extended RAS
mutations (KRAS and NRAS) in patients with colorectal cancers
in eastern India: An observational study. Cancer Research,
Statistics, and Treatment. 2021 Apr 1;4(2):244.
32. Charlton ME, Kahl AR, Greenbaum AA, Karlitz JJ, Lin C,
Lynch CF, Chen VW. KRAS testing, tumor location, and survival
in patients with stage IV colorectal cancer: SEER 2010–2013.
Journal of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network. 2017
Dec 1;15(12):1484-93.
33.Karapetis CS, Khambata-Ford S, Jonker DJ, O’Callaghan CJ, Tu
D, Tebbutt NC, Simes RJ, Chalchal H, Shapiro JD, Robitaille
S, Price TJ. K-ras mutations and benefit from cetuximab in
advanced colorectal cancer. New England Journal of Medicine.
2008 Oct 23;359(17):1757-65.
34.de la Fouchardière C, Cohen R, Malka D, Guimbaud R, Bourien
H, Lièvre A, Cacheux W, Artru P, François E, Gilabert M,
Samalin‐Scalzi E. Characteristics of BRAFV600E mutant,
deficient mismatch repair/proficient mismatch repair, metastatic
colorectal cancer: A multicenter series of 287 patients. The
oncologist. 2019 Dec;24(12):e1331.
35.Jover R, Zapater P, Castells A, Llor X, Andreu M, Cubiella J, Piñol
V, Xicola RM, Bujanda L, Reñé JM, Clofent J. Mismatch repair
status in the prediction of benefit from adjuvant fluorouracil
chemotherapy in colorectal cancer. Gut. 2006 Jun 1;55(6):848-
55.
36.Knapen DG, Cherny NI, Zygoura P, Latino NJ, Douillard JY,
Dafni U, de Vries EG, de Groot DJ. Lessons learnt from scoring
adjuvant colon cancer trials and meta-analyses using the ESMO-
Magnitude of Clinical Benefit Scale V. 1.1. ESMO open. 2020
Jan 1;5(5):e000681.
37.Codes AP. Medical Oncology Services: Colon Cancer;
Neoadjuvant or Adjuvant Therapy. POLICY. 2019;7:158.
38.Ma Y, Zhang P, Wang F, Liu W, Yang J, Qin H. An integrated
proteomics and metabolomics approach for defining oncofetal
biomarkers in the colorectal cancer. Annals of surgery. 2012 Apr
1;255(4):720-30.
39.Ogino S, Fuchs CS, Giovannucci E. How many molecular
subtypes? Implications of the unique tumor principle in
personalized medicine. Expert review of molecular diagnostics.
2012 Jul 1;12(6):621-8.
40. Fearon ER, Vogelstein B. A genetic model for colorectal
tumorigenesis. cell. 1990 Jun 1;61(5):759-67.
41.Gustavsson B, Carlsson G, Machover D, Petrelli N, Roth A,
Schmoll HJ, Tveit KM, Gibson F. A review of the evolution of
systemic chemotherapy in the management of colorectal cancer.
Clinical colorectal cancer. 2015 Mar 1;14(1):1-0.
42.Sebio A, Stintzing S, Stremitzer S, Zhang W, Lenz HJ.
Panitumumab: leading to better overall survival in metastatic
colorectal cancer?. Expert opinion on biological therapy. 2014
Apr 1;14(4):535-48.
43.Saridaki Z, Souglakos J, Georgoulias V. Prognostic and predictive
significance of MSI in stages II/III colon cancer. World Journal
of Gastroenterology: WJG. 2014 Jun 14;20(22):6809.
44.Gonzalez-Pons M, Cruz-Correa M. Colorectal cancer biomarkers:
where are we now?. BioMed research international. 2015
Oct;2015.
45.Newton KF, Newman W, Hill J. Review of biomarkers in
colorectal cancer. Colorectal disease. 2012 Jan;14(1):3-17.
46.Ramos E, Callier SL, Rotimi CN. Why personalized medicine
will fail if we stay the course. Personalized medicine. 2012
Nov;9(8):839-47.
)