Document Type : Review Article
Authors
Department of Nanotechnology, Jabir Ibn Hayyan Institute, Technical and Vocational Training Organization, Isfahan, Iran
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease that leads to progressive and incurable cognitive and behavioral disorders. Personalized medicine, which is also called precision medicine, represents an approach to the treatment of the disease with the aim of improving the effectiveness of the treatment, which stops or slows the disease in an optimal and targeted manner based on a certain time. It enables physician to accurately and efficiently identify the most effective treatment. Personalized medicine is based on molecular knowledge. Genome sequencing by the Human Genome Project (HGP) represents one of the most powerful tools for personalized medicine, as well as transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics development which can be used for both disease prediction and better treatment. In this paper, we will review the strategies that personalized medicine offers for the treatment of AD for the future.
Keywords
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24.Kikuchi, M., et al., An Alzheimer’s disease pathway uncovered by functional omics: the risk gene CELF1 regulates KLC1 splice variant E expression, which drives Aβ pathology. medRxiv, 2022.
25.Friedman, B.A., et al., Diverse brain myeloid expression profiles reveal distinct microglial activation states and aspects of Alzheimer’s disease not evident in mouse models. Cell reports, 2018. 22(3): p. 832-847.
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29.Ahmad, J., et al., Nanotechnology based theranostic approaches in Alzheimer’s disease management: current status and future perspective. Current Alzheimer Research, 2017. 14(11): p. 1164-1181.
30.Narayanan, S.E., et al., Molecular mechanism of zinc neurotoxicity in Alzheimer’s disease. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 2020. 27(35): p. 43542-43552.
31.Uddin, M.S., et al., Revisiting the role of brain and peripheral Aβ in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 2020. 416: p. 116974.
32.Aileen Funke, S. and D. Willbold, Peptides for therapy and diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease. Current pharmaceutical design, 2012. 18(6): p. 755-767.
33.Birks, J. and D. Melzer, Donepezil for mild and moderate Alzheimer’s disease. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2000(2): p. CD001190-CD001190.
34.Melnikova, I., Therapies for Alzheimer’s disease. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery, 2007. 6(5): p. 341-342.
35.Onor, M.L., M. Trevisiol, and E. Aguglia, Rivastigmine in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: an update. Clinical interventions in aging, 2007. 2(1): p. 17.
36.Ables, A.Z., Memantine (Namenda) for moderate to severe Alzheimer’s disease. American family physician, 2004. 69(6): p. 1491.
37.Benedet, A.L., et al., CYP2C19 variant mitigates Alzheimer disease pathophysiology in vivo and postmortem. Neurology Genetics, 2018. 4(1).
38.Alonso-Navarro, H., F.J. Jimenez-Jimenez, and J.A. Garcia-Agundez, The role of CYP2C19 polymorphism in the development of adverse effects to drugs and the risk for diseases. Medicina Clinica, 2006. 126(18): p. 697-706.
39.Lloret, A., et al., The effectiveness of vitamin E treatment in Alzheimer’s disease. International journal of molecular sciences, 2019. 20(4): p. 879.
40.Fillenbaum, G.G., et al., Dementia and Alzheimer’s disease in community-dwelling elders taking vitamin C and/or vitamin E. Annals of Pharmacotherapy, 2005. 39(12): p. 2009-2014.
41.Cervantes, B. and L.M. Ulatowski, Vitamin E and Alzheimer’s disease—is it time for personalized medicine? Antioxidants, 2017. 6(3): p. 45.
42.Michaelson, D.M., APOE ε4: The most prevalent yet understudied risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 2014. 10(6): p. 861-868.
43.Gomez‐Isla, T., et al., Clinical and pathological correlates of apolipoprotein E ε4 in Alzheimer’s disease. Annals of neurology, 1996. 39(1): p. 62-70.
44.Silva-Spínola, A., et al., The road to personalized medicine in Alzheimer’s disease: The use of artificial intelligence. Biomedicines, 2022. 10(2): p. 315.
45.Reiman, E.M., et al., Alzheimer’s Prevention Initiative: a plan to accelerate the evaluation of presymptomatic treatments. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 2011. 26(s3): p. 321-329.
46.Moulder, K.L., et al., Dominantly Inherited Alzheimer Network: facilitating research and clinical trials. Alzheimer’s research & therapy, 2013. 5(5): p. 1-7.
47.Sanchez-Rodriguez, L.M., et al., Design of optimal nonlinear network controllers for Alzheimer’s disease. PLoS computational biology, 2018. 14(5): p. e1006136.
48.Sperling, R.A., et al., Toward defining the preclinical stages of Alzheimer’s disease: Recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s & dementia, 2011. 7(3): p. 280-292.
2. Prince, M., et al., The global prevalence of dementia: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Alzheimer’s & dementia, 2013. 9(1): p. 63-75. e2.
3. Uddin, M., et al., Emerging therapeutic promise of ketogenic diet to attenuate neuropathological alterations in Alzheimer’s disease. Molecular Neurobiology, 2020. 57(12): p. 4961-4977.
4. Mendez, M.F., Early-onset Alzheimer’s disease: nonamnestic subtypes and type 2 AD. Archives of medical research, 2012. 43(8): p. 677-685.
5. Uddin, M.S., et al., Molecular genetics of early-and late-onset Alzheimer’s disease. Current Gene Therapy, 2021. 21(1): p. 43-52.
6. Association, A.s., 2019 Alzheimer’s disease facts and figures. Alzheimer’s & dementia, 2019. 15(3): p. 321-387.
7. Reitz, C., Genetic loci associated with Alzheimer’s disease. Future neurology, 2014. 9(2): p. 119-122.
8. Kanekiyo, T., H. Xu, and G. Bu, ApoE and Aβ in Alzheimer’s disease: accidental encounters or partners? Neuron, 2014. 81(4): p. 740-754.
9. Lee, J.H., S. Barral, and C. Reitz, The neuronal sortilin-related receptor gene SORL1 and late-onset Alzheimer’s disease. Current neurology and neuroscience reports, 2008. 8(5): p. 384-391.
10.Hampel, H., et al., The amyloid-β pathway in Alzheimer’s disease. Molecular Psychiatry, 2021. 26(10): p. 5481-5503.
11.Griciuc, A. and R.E. Tanzi, The role of innate immune genes in Alzheimer’s disease. Current opinion in neurology, 2021. 34(2): p. 228.
12.Wang, N., et al., Relationship between Alzheimer’s disease and the immune system: a meta-analysis of differentially expressed genes. Frontiers in neuroscience, 2019. 12: p. 1026.
13.Katsel, P. and V. Haroutunian, Is Alzheimer disease a failure of mobilizing immune defense? Lessons from cognitively fit oldest-old. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 2022.
14.Yin, F., Lipid metabolism and Alzheimer’s disease: clinical evidence, mechanistic link and therapeutic promise. The FEBS Journal, 2022.
15.Hauser, P.S., V. Narayanaswami, and R.O. Ryan, Apolipoprotein E: from lipid transport to neurobiology. Progress in lipid research, 2011. 50(1): p. 62-74.
16.Kang, J. and S. Rivest, Lipid metabolism and neuroinflammation in Alzheimer’s disease: a role for liver X receptors. Endocrine reviews, 2012. 33(5): p. 715-746.
17.Ando, K., et al., Alzheimer’s Disease: Tau Pathology and Dysfunction of Endocytosis. Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience, 2021. 13: p. 583755.
18.Pooler, A.M., et al., Propagation of tau pathology in Alzheimer’s disease: identification of novel therapeutic targets. Alzheimer’s research & therapy, 2013. 5(5): p. 1-8.
19.De Farias, A.R.M., et al., Role of the late‐onset Alzheimer’s disease risk genes bin1 and ptk2b in the hyperexcitability of hiPSC‐derived neurons. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 2021. 17: p. e053632.
20.Giralt, A., et al., PTK2B/Pyk2 overexpression improves a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. Experimental neurology, 2018. 307: p. 62-73.
21.Li, Y.-Q., et al., Common variant in PTK2B is associated with late-onset Alzheimer’s disease: A replication study and meta-analyses. Neuroscience letters, 2016. 621: p. 83-87.
22.Hassan, A., H. Scott, and M. Hill, Regulation of microglial transcription factor MEF2C by Alzheimer’s disease‐relevant stimuli. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 2021. 17: p. e057448.
23.Karch, C.M., et al., Alzheimer’s disease risk polymorphisms regulate gene expression in the ZCWPW1 and the CELF1 loci. PloS one, 2016. 11(2): p. e0148717.
24.Kikuchi, M., et al., An Alzheimer’s disease pathway uncovered by functional omics: the risk gene CELF1 regulates KLC1 splice variant E expression, which drives Aβ pathology. medRxiv, 2022.
25.Friedman, B.A., et al., Diverse brain myeloid expression profiles reveal distinct microglial activation states and aspects of Alzheimer’s disease not evident in mouse models. Cell reports, 2018. 22(3): p. 832-847.
26.Yang, Y., et al., Implications of FBXW7 in neurodevelopment and neurodegeneration: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic potential. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 2021: p. 338.
27.Lin, Z., et al., Blood–brain barrier breakdown in relationship to Alzheimer and vascular disease. Annals of neurology, 2021. 90(2): p. 227-238.
28.Herholz, K. and K. Ebmeier, Clinical amyloid imaging in Alzheimer’s disease. The Lancet Neurology, 2011. 10(7): p. 667-670.
29.Ahmad, J., et al., Nanotechnology based theranostic approaches in Alzheimer’s disease management: current status and future perspective. Current Alzheimer Research, 2017. 14(11): p. 1164-1181.
30.Narayanan, S.E., et al., Molecular mechanism of zinc neurotoxicity in Alzheimer’s disease. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 2020. 27(35): p. 43542-43552.
31.Uddin, M.S., et al., Revisiting the role of brain and peripheral Aβ in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 2020. 416: p. 116974.
32.Aileen Funke, S. and D. Willbold, Peptides for therapy and diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease. Current pharmaceutical design, 2012. 18(6): p. 755-767.
33.Birks, J. and D. Melzer, Donepezil for mild and moderate Alzheimer’s disease. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2000(2): p. CD001190-CD001190.
34.Melnikova, I., Therapies for Alzheimer’s disease. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery, 2007. 6(5): p. 341-342.
35.Onor, M.L., M. Trevisiol, and E. Aguglia, Rivastigmine in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: an update. Clinical interventions in aging, 2007. 2(1): p. 17.
36.Ables, A.Z., Memantine (Namenda) for moderate to severe Alzheimer’s disease. American family physician, 2004. 69(6): p. 1491.
37.Benedet, A.L., et al., CYP2C19 variant mitigates Alzheimer disease pathophysiology in vivo and postmortem. Neurology Genetics, 2018. 4(1).
38.Alonso-Navarro, H., F.J. Jimenez-Jimenez, and J.A. Garcia-Agundez, The role of CYP2C19 polymorphism in the development of adverse effects to drugs and the risk for diseases. Medicina Clinica, 2006. 126(18): p. 697-706.
39.Lloret, A., et al., The effectiveness of vitamin E treatment in Alzheimer’s disease. International journal of molecular sciences, 2019. 20(4): p. 879.
40.Fillenbaum, G.G., et al., Dementia and Alzheimer’s disease in community-dwelling elders taking vitamin C and/or vitamin E. Annals of Pharmacotherapy, 2005. 39(12): p. 2009-2014.
41.Cervantes, B. and L.M. Ulatowski, Vitamin E and Alzheimer’s disease—is it time for personalized medicine? Antioxidants, 2017. 6(3): p. 45.
42.Michaelson, D.M., APOE ε4: The most prevalent yet understudied risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 2014. 10(6): p. 861-868.
43.Gomez‐Isla, T., et al., Clinical and pathological correlates of apolipoprotein E ε4 in Alzheimer’s disease. Annals of neurology, 1996. 39(1): p. 62-70.
44.Silva-Spínola, A., et al., The road to personalized medicine in Alzheimer’s disease: The use of artificial intelligence. Biomedicines, 2022. 10(2): p. 315.
45.Reiman, E.M., et al., Alzheimer’s Prevention Initiative: a plan to accelerate the evaluation of presymptomatic treatments. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 2011. 26(s3): p. 321-329.
46.Moulder, K.L., et al., Dominantly Inherited Alzheimer Network: facilitating research and clinical trials. Alzheimer’s research & therapy, 2013. 5(5): p. 1-7.
47.Sanchez-Rodriguez, L.M., et al., Design of optimal nonlinear network controllers for Alzheimer’s disease. PLoS computational biology, 2018. 14(5): p. e1006136.
48.Sperling, R.A., et al., Toward defining the preclinical stages of Alzheimer’s disease: Recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s & dementia, 2011. 7(3): p. 280-292.
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