Personalized and Precision Medicine Journal

Abstract Mitochondria are the extra-nuclear source of DNA in cells and play an important role in cell death susceptibility,  oxidative stress regulation, metabolism, and signaling in normal cells. Because of this, its dysfunction can contribute to the progression of cancer and metastasis. Also, mtDNA mutations have been reported in many cancers, followed by altered mitochondrial activity and cellular signaling . This increase in mtDNA mutation is due to the proximity of the genome to the OXPHOS system which are thought to be more in extent than mutation nuclear. These mutations do not inactivate energy metabolism but change its state. Therefore, it is not surprising that the function of mitochondria is vital for cancer cells, in addition to understanding the mechanisms of mitochondrial function in the process of tumor formation and cancer progression is essential for cancer treatments.

Abstract Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common solid tumor in men. While patients with local PCa have better prognostic survival, patients with metastatic PCa have relatively high mortality rates. Exosomes (and other extracellular vesicles) are now part of the cancer research landscape, involved both as players in pathophysiological mechanisms, as biomarkers of the cancer process, and as therapeutic tools. Exosomes contain miRNAs, mRNAs, and proteins with the potential to regulate signaling pathways in recipient cells. Accumulating evidence indicates that exosomes play important roles in cell communication and tumor progression and are suitable for monitoring PCa progression and metastasis.

Abstract Chronic inflammation is a pivotal element in the onset and advancement of cancer. It is crucial in tumor initiation, survival, metastasis, and therapeutic resistance. This study seeks to thoroughly examine the intricate relationship between inflammation and cancer, emphasizing the role of inflammatory processes in tumor formation and their influence on cancer therapy responses. We will investigate the molecular processes behind inflammation-induced cancer progression, analyze how inflammation affects metastasis, and assess its effects on the effectiveness of treatments like chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and targeted therapies. Furthermore, we will investigate prospective therapeutic approaches for addressing inflammation in cancer treatment, emphasizing the necessity for specific modulation to enhance treatment efficacy while mitigating adverse consequences such as immune suppression or heightened infection risk. The report finishes with a discussion on prospective research avenues focused on optimizing inflammation-targeting techniques to augment the efficacy of cancer therapies and better patient outcomes. Ultimately, a deeper understanding of inflammation’s dual role in cancer could pave the way for innovative, more personalized treatment strategies that improve survival and quality of life for patients.

Abstract Gene therapy, as an experimental therapy, is applied for the treatment of diseases through modification of genes. Gene therapy corrects the mutated genes. Somatic and germline gene therapy are two main types of gene therapy. In germline editing, normal genes are inserted into the human’s eggs or sperm, zygote, or early embryo. Therefore, the gene is transmitted to the next generation, but in somatic gene therapy, a normal gene is inserted into somatic cells and corrects the defective gene without transmission to children. Personalized medicine is a novel therapeutic protocol for the prevention and treatment of diseases that considers individuals’ responding differences to medications.  So, it raises ethical issues. Ethical concerns regarding gene therapy and personalized medicine are as follows: safety, accessibility, cost-efficiency, genetic enhancement, dignity, autonomy, identity, and social discrimination.

Abstract Despite the well-known high prevalence of failure in drug development, recent advancements in tissue engineering and microfabrication have helped to create microphysiological systems (MPS), or "organs-on-chips," which mimic the function of human organs. These "tissue chips" might be used for toxicity and drug screening tests, which could revolutionize the early phases of the drug development process. Additionally, they may be utilized to simulate disease conditions, supplying new instruments for deciphering disease pathologies and causes and evaluating the efficacy of novel treatments. Future clinical trials on chips might be utilized to assess novel medicines in both populations and individuals, opening the door for precision medicine. Here, we'll discuss tissue chips' diverse potential and the difficulties in developing them.

Abstract Recent research has pinpointed cancer as the primary cause of death on a global scale. Various traditional medications and cytotoxic immunotherapies have been established and are now accessible on the market. Given the intricate nature of tumor activity and the multitude of genetic and cellular elements implicated in the development and spread of cancers, it is imperative to create a highly effective immunotherapy that can specifically target tumors at both the cellular and genetic levels. In the clinical context, cancer immunotherapy is growing more and more significant, particularly for tumors that are resistant to traditional chemotherapy and targeted treatments. Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy is a new method of modifying T cells taken from a patient's blood in a laboratory setting. These modified T cells are created to express artificial receptors that specifically target a particular tumor antigen. These specifically recognize the tumor antigen without the participation of the major histocompatibility complex. The use of CAR therapy has the promise of providing a prompt and more secure treatment regimen for both non-solid and solid malignancies. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of the benefits and progress made in CAR immunotherapy.

Abstract Physicians are enthusiastic about using a novel approach known as cancer immunotherapy to address various forms of cancer. However, there are occasions when novel therapies that demonstrate efficacy in laboratory settings may not provide the same level of effectiveness when applied to actual patients. To address this issue, scientists are using miniature replicas known as microfluidic models. These models provide the examination of the interaction between cancer and immune cells in a manner that closely resembles the physiological conditions inside the human body. This review examines the role of microfluidic models in advancing the development of more effective cancer therapies. Let's begin by discussing the current state of affairs in cancer immunotherapy. Next, we explore the use of microfluidic models by scientists to gain insights into the mechanisms via which the immune system combats cancer and to evaluate the efficacy of novel therapeutic interventions. Additionally, we discuss the first measures used to demonstrate the efficacy of these models in predicting the effectiveness of therapies in human subjects. Lastly, we will discuss the advantages of using microfluidic models and the necessary steps to enhance their efficacy in the development of novel cancer therapies.
 

Abstract Recent research has uncovered a wide range of RNAs, including noncoding RNAs, and have discovered their varied modes of action inside cells. These ribonucleic acids (RNAs) play a crucial role in controlling many cellular processes and are thus anticipated to be significant targets for the treatment of human disorders. In recent years, RNA-based medicinal approaches have made significant advancements alongside their comprehensive functional research. Following extensive study and experimentation, medications based on antisense RNAs and small interfering RNAs have been successfully created and are already being used in clinical settings. Furthermore, there is now ongoing research focused on the development of pharmaceuticals using RNA aptamers and messenger RNA. In addition to the advancement of RNA-based medications, many techniques have been devised to effectively deliver RNA drugs into cells. RNA treatment offers several benefits compared to current therapeutics based on small molecules or monoclonal antibodies, mostly due to its ability to selectively target all genes inside cells. The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of the introduction of various RNA-based technologies and the introduction of RNA-based drugs in the market. In addition, the future prospects of RNA therapy will be addressed.

Abstract Lung cancer is one of the leading causes of death globally, affecting both men and women with a high mortality rate. The majority of cases are diagnosed at an advanced stage, contributing to its poor prognosis. Early detection is crucial but challenging due to the asymptomatic nature of early-stage disease. Identifying reliable tumor markers is vital for improving diagnosis. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) has revolutionized oncology by offering detailed insights into the genetic makeup of lung cancer. NGS allows for comprehensive genomic profiling, even from small samples, identifying mutations, gene fusions, and copy number variations. This review explores the role of NGS panels in lung cancer's early detection, particularly within personalized medicine. NGS enables clinicians to detect actionable biomarkers, tailor treatments based on individual genomic profiles, and improve outcomes. Its ability to analyze multiple genes simultaneously makes it efficient in identifying therapeutic targets and resistance mechanisms. Additionally, NGS processes large datasets quickly, promoting its adoption in clinical practice. By identifying genetic mutations driving tumor development, NGS supports more precise treatment approaches, improving clinical management and reducing mortality. Its cost-effectiveness, particularly in reducing the need for multiple tests, strengthens its position in oncology. As personalized medicine advances, NGS is expected to play a key role in lung cancer's diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment, with ongoing technological improvements enhancing its clinical utility.

Abstract Drug resistance is a major obstacle in the effective treatment of cancer, severely impacting patient outcomes and complicating therapeutic strategies. The development of resistance is multifactorial, involving a combination of genetic and epigenetic changes within cancer cells, alterations in drug metabolism, increased DNA repair mechanisms, overexpression of drug efflux pumps, and complex interactions with the tumor microenvironment. These factors work synergistically to render traditional chemotherapy and targeted therapies less effective over time.
Recent advances in molecular biology, particularly next-generation sequencing and the CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing tool, have significantly enhanced our understanding of the underlying mechanisms driving resistance. These technologies have enabled researchers to identify novel genetic mutations and signaling pathways that cancer cells exploit to evade treatment, offering new potential targets for therapeutic intervention. Additionally, the dynamic role of the tumor microenvironment, including immune cells, stromal cells, and extracellular matrix components, has emerged as a key factor influencing drug resistance, further complicating treatment strategies.
To address these challenges, several innovative therapeutic approaches are being explored. Combination therapies, which involve the use of multiple drugs targeting different pathways simultaneously, hold promise in overcoming resistance by attacking cancer cells from multiple fronts. Immunotherapy, which harnesses the body's immune system to target cancer cells, is also showing significant potential in resistant cancers. Furthermore, nanomedicine, which uses nanoparticles to deliver drugs directly to tumors, may improve drug efficacy and minimize resistance.
Despite these advancements, much remains to be done. Ongoing research focused on identifying reliable biomarkers, developing personalized medicine approaches, and understanding the intricate relationship between cancer cells and their microenvironment is essential. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge regarding drug resistance in cancer, emerging therapeutic strategies, and future research directions in this critical field.

Abstract Chronic inflammation is a pivotal element in the onset and advancement of cancer. It is crucial in tumor initiation, survival, metastasis, and therapeutic resistance. This study seeks to thoroughly examine the intricate relationship between inflammation and cancer, emphasizing the role of inflammatory processes in tumor formation and their influence on cancer therapy responses. We will investigate the molecular processes behind inflammation-induced cancer progression, analyze how inflammation affects metastasis, and assess its effects on the effectiveness of treatments like chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and targeted therapies. Furthermore, we will investigate prospective therapeutic approaches for addressing inflammation in cancer treatment, emphasizing the necessity for specific modulation to enhance treatment efficacy while mitigating adverse consequences such as immune suppression or heightened infection risk. The report finishes with a discussion on prospective research avenues focused on optimizing inflammation-targeting techniques to augment the efficacy of cancer therapies and better patient outcomes. Ultimately, a deeper understanding of inflammation’s dual role in cancer could pave the way for innovative, more personalized treatment strategies that improve survival and quality of life for patients.

Abstract Kallikrein related peptidases (KLKs) are a group of serine-like proteases such as chemo trypsin and trypsin, which are regulated by steroid hormones and play a vital role in a variety of natural and physiological functions through their proteolytic activity. However, involvement of these proteases has been reported in many pathological conditions, such as various types of malignancies. Deregulation of the expression of genes encoding kallikrein, including KLK2, is often associated with many types of cancer, in particular prostate cancer. This review provides an overview of the gene and protein structures and function of KLKs particularly, KLK2, at the molecular level, and also summarizes the role of KLK2 in the pathobiology of prostate cancer and the possible mechanisms involved in its progression. Finally, the importance of this protein is studied as a specific diagnostic marker along with PSA marker as well as therapeutic target of KLK2 in treatment of prostate cancer.  A comprehensive understanding the structure and activity of this protein in prostate cancer can provide a valuable tool for future clinical practice that can be used to evaluate the clinical outcome and select the most appropriate treatment strategy. The critical role of KLK2 in promoting cell growth, migration, metastasis, angiogenesis and inhibiting apoptosis in prostate cancer cells, suggests KLK2 as the second diagnostic biomarker along with PSA with high specificity.

Abstract It has been known for quite some time that gut microbiota plays an important role in human health and illness. Recent years have seen a surge in interest in the human gut microbiota, and the advent of metagenomic investigations has greatly aided our understanding of the resident species and their potential uses. The human digestive tract is home to billions of bacteria, making up the varied gut microbiota. At birth, the gut microbiome begins to take shape and proliferate, and throughout life, numerous genetic, dietary, and environmental variables will shape and multiply this community. Alterations to the gut microbiota's structure and function may affect digestion, metabolism, and the immune system. Meanwhile, personalized medicine, a new therapeutic approach, has opened a new door in the medical sciences, and the link between the microbiome and personalized medicine is one of the most intriguing areas of study going forward. Since the link between this two axis is new, there are few research on it. Therefore, in this review study, the relationship between the gut microbiome, drug interactions, disease progression, and personalized medicine has been discussed.

Abstract Cancer is a significant global cause of mortality, and enhancing therapy is essential to save lives and minimise adverse consequences. Aptamers, composed of DNA or RNA, have the potential for cancer treatment by precise targeting of certain molecules. Aptamers, unlike conventional therapies such as chemotherapy, have the specific objective of delivering medications directly to cancer cells, while reducing injury to healthy cells. This paper examines the process of aptamer development and utilisation in cancer treatment, with a specific emphasis on their capacity to enhance therapy and surmount drug resistance. Additionally, it explores the obstacles and potential advancements in using aptamers to transform cancer therapy.

Abstract Personal medicine is based on purposeful treatment that, unlike traditional therapies, considers a person's genetic structure and medical history before establishing a treatment regimen. This science has made possible the improvement of "pharmacogenomic" knowledge, which identifies individuals who respond to a particular treatment based on their genotype information. The findings of the Cancer Genome Atlas Network show that each molecular endorsement of each BCis unique. Also, different responses to a given medication regimen have been reported among a similar group of breast cancer. Thus, personal medicine plays a role in the care of patients with breast cancer, in which a person's characteristics, including genetic characteristics, guide clinical decisions and are effective in choosing the right treatment for the patient at the right time.

Abstract Precision nutrition is now feasible thanks to recent developments in genomic and multi-omic technology, which have significantly changed our understanding of the complex interactions between nutrition, genetics, and health.Sometimes shortened to nutrigenetics, epigenetics, metagenomics, and nutrigenomics, nutritional genomics is the study of how environmental influences, gut flora, genetic variants, and gene expression affect food responses and illness risk. This new work offers significant fresh ideas for modifying diets to fit traditional food systems, cultural conventions, and personal genetic profiles. Diet evolution aims to solve the flaws in the "one-diet-fits-all" approach in view of the worldwide increase in chronic diseases. Variations in genes and cultural standards call into doubt the health advantages of often advised diets, including the Mediterranean model, when considered in specific communities. Customized diet regimens aimed at enhancing health should take into account lifestyle, regional cuisine, microbiome variety, genetic inheritance, and other elements. Combining traditional cooking skills with modern scientific information provides a culturally sensitive, environmentally friendly, and effective method to prevent diseases and promote long-term health improvement as is becoming the case in public health strategies.

Abstract Pharmacogenomics is the application of genetic and other omics data to specific medication selection and application for avoiding adverse drug reactions (ADR) and increasing drug potency. Pharmacists are playing an increasingly important role in optimizing medicine usage based on genetic testing results. Effect elucidation, genotype-guided medication and modification, medication asset, adverse reaction monitoring, and patient education are all tasks performed by pharmacists. Microbial invasion leads to infectious diseases, which have afflicted mankind from the early era, and is still impacting the health and one of the major causes of morbidity as well as mortality in the society. The response to therapy and the prognosis of an illness are also influenced by an individual’s genetic makeup. The data retrieved by genome sequencing of pathogen and humans is one further step forward in examining host-parasite interactions. Consideration of microbial pathogenicity factors, host genetic makeup, and the genetic mechanism involved in disease pathogenesis has paved the way for novel molecular approaches for medications, disease markers, and vaccinations to be discovered. The regulatory approval of amplification tests that are comparable or patronizing to existing gold standard procedures is now assisting the advancement of molecular diagnostics for infectious diseases. Progress in genetics and computation is altering the scale at which biological systems are depicted, and researchers may now expect a precision-focused variety in how they prepare for and respond to infectious diseases. This review will look at the origins and evolution of pharmacogenomics, as well as some of the controversies surrounding its therapeutic applications.

Abstract Multiple sclerosis (MS), the most common inflammatory demyelinating illness of the central nervous system (CNS), presents a range of clinical symptoms. The body’s immune system attacking myelin causes the transmission block in MS, which increases the electrical capacity of axons. Studies suggest that epigenetic factors play a part in the development of MS. Longer than 200 nucleotides in length and widely distributed, lncRNAs are linear RNA transcripts that cannot code for proteins. For instance, evidence suggests that lncRNAs are essential for a number of cellular functions, including immune response regulation, epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT), cancer cell proliferation and metastasis, cellular homeostasis, and embryonic development. Epigenetic mechanisms have been proven to have a significant impact on the pathophysiology of MS, and their participation has revealed the function of lncRNAs as epigenetic regulatory molecules in molecular processes. The major subjects of this study have been the relationship between lncRNAs and MS, the role of lncRNA in the pathophysiology of the disease, and the diagnostic and prognostic potential of lncRNA in MS.

Abstract Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV2) leading to COVID-19 has initiated a catastrophe for humans since December 2019. Genetic and protein similarities between SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV2 offer the same treatments for both types of virus. However, there are some sequence or structural differences between SARS-CoV2 and SARS-CoV as well as other coronaviruses that make difficulties in discovering drugs and vaccines against this novel type of virus. Therefore, it is vital to recognize protein and genetic structures of SARS-CoV2 to discover drugs which directly target this strain of coronavirus. This review presents a perspective on SARS-CoV2, it’s genetic and protein structures with a brief comparison with other coronaviruses as well as summarizing some immune responses activated against SARS-CoV2. In addition, it introduces the novel strategies to combat with COVID-19 that would be potentially effective on SARS-CoV2.
 

Abstract In cancer treatment, anesthesia is commonly used during surgery to remove tumors, as well as for other procedures like biopsies, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy administration. Some research suggests that the choice of specific anesthetic drugs and nerve-sparing techniques can have a significant impact on cancer recurrence rates and overall patient survival. It is well-established that a patient's immune system plays a direct role in postoperative complications and long-term outcomes, highlighting the importance of optimizing anesthesia to minimize potential immune system suppression and improve immune function during cancer surgery. Recent studies have revealed a strong connection between the type of anesthesia used during surgery and the likelihood of cancer relapse and related mortality. Therefore, it is crucial to select the appropriate anesthesia technique for cancer resection, focusing on reversible effects, rapid recovery, and resistance to feedback. The specific anesthetic agents used during surgery have a significant impact on survival rates and the risk of cancer-related mortality. Genetic influences on anesthesia response are significant for improving patient care and achieving better results. Additionally, personalized medicine, which combines diagnostic testing and treatment, is now a clinical reality. Anesthesia's effects on depth, pain signals, vital signs, and the motor system are complex and not fully understood, and many researchers believe that anesthesia is regulated by multiple genes, although further research is needed to identify them and understand how they are regulated. The relationship between anesthesia and cancer is complex and evolving with implications for medical treatment. Limited evidence suggests that anesthesia and surgery-related factors can affect cancer biology and outcomes. Further research is needed to understand these interactions and develop strategies for improving cancer care during surgery. Better understanding can lead to safer and more effective cancer treatment, benefitting patients.

Abstract  A metabolic disease known as diabetes mellitus (DM) is brought on by a reduction in insulin production and activity. Nephropathy, retinopathy, and cardiovascular problems are among the pathological alterations that the body will unavoidably experience as the condition progresses. Type I DM and Type II DM are the two basic subtypes of DM. Oral hypoglycemics are used to treat type II diabetes, while insulin replacement treatment is often used to treat type I diabetes. Insulin secretagogues, biguanides, insulin sensitizers, alpha-glucosidase inhibitors, incretin mimetics, amylin antagonists, and sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors are the main medications used to treat type II diabetes. When first-line oral hypoglycemic medications are not as effective as monotherapy, dual-drug treatments are often advised for patients. Despite the significant therapeutic advantages, traditional dosage forms have a short half-life and varied bioavailability, which require frequent dosing and increased side effects. This may render treatment ineffective and result in patient non-compliance. With the extra benefit of site-specific medication delivery with increased bioavailability and a lower dose regimen, nanotechnology-based techniques are more alluring, given the pathological intricacy of the condition above.
In this review study, we have attempted to examine the biology of type II diabetes, traditional treatment modalities (mono and combination therapy), and drug delivery methods based on nanotechnology.

Abstract Microbiome means microbes coexisting with the host, regardless of the species, in a part of the body of an organism called microbiome. Nowadays, changes in gut microbiota are considered as a potential therapeutic approach for the prevention or treatment of colorectal cancer (CRC).Studies have shown that dietary habits and lifestyle play a role in modulating the gut microbiota.
Intestinal microbiota plays a role in converting food components into oncometabolites. Some studies showed that Shigella, Citrobacter and Salmonella bacteria are more abundant in the early stages of cancer compared to healthy people. The aim of this study is to review the role of microbiomes in the development of colorectal cancer and the metabolites produced by microbiomes in the development of colorectal cancer.

Abstract The human microbiome, consisting of trillions of microorganisms living in and on the body, plays a critical role in maintaining physiological balance and health. Recent advancements in microbiome research have demonstrated its profound influence on immune function, metabolic regulation, and disease pathogenesis. Personalized therapies that integrate the microbiome into treatment strategies have emerged as a promising approach to optimize patient outcomes. This review explores the current understanding of the microbiome’s role in immune and metabolic regulation and highlights emerging approaches for incorporating microbiome-based interventions into personalized therapy regimens. We discuss the potential of microbiome modulation to enhance immune responses, improve metabolic health, and provide novel therapeutic options for diseases such as cancer, diabetes, autoimmune disorders, and inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD).
 

Abstract The ability of immunotherapy to treat ovarian cancer is currently limited, however evaluating sensitive/resistant target treatment subpopulations based on stratification by tumor biomarkers may enhance this ability. These indicators include the number of tumor mutations, PD-L1, tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, a lack of homologous recombination, and intratumoral heterogeneity of neoantigens. The use of these indicators to choose the best candidates for ovarian cancer treatment is one of the future directions. In addition to reviewing innovative treatments and study designs including tumor biomarkers that improve the chances of immunotherapy success in ovarian cancer, this paper also analyzes the function of immunotherapy in ovarian cancer.

Abstract Variability in medication reactions and illness susceptibility among individuals is often seen in clinical settings. Personalized medicine is now highly esteemed for its focus on prescribing the appropriate medication to each patient. Metabolomics is a developing field that thoroughly assesses all metabolite and low-molecular-weight compounds in a biological sample. Metabolic profiling offers a quick overview of a cell's physiology, making the technique a direct indicator of an organism's physiological condition. Quantifiable correlations exist between the metabolome and other cellular components such as the genome, transcriptome, proteome, and lipidome. These correlations can be utilized to forecast metabolite levels in biological samples based on mRNA levels. One of the key problems in systems biology is to incorporate metabolomics with other -omics data to enhance comprehension of cellular biology. Metabolomics is used to assess the effectiveness of clinical substances by analyzing the metabolic characteristics of patients before treatment to predict their responses (pharmacometabolomic) and to identify individuals at risk of developing diseases (patient stratification). The rapid progress in metabolomics technique highlights its significant potential for use in customized treatment. We reviewed the unique benefits of metabolomics, including instances in assessing medication treatment and individual stratification, and emphasized metabolomics' promise in personalized medicine.