Document Type : Review Article
Authors
1 Department of Micrbiology, Faculty of biology, Islamic Azad University, North Branch,Tehran, Iran
2 Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, North Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
The discovery and production of (synthetic) antibiotics in the first half of the previous century has been one of medicine’s greatest achievements. The use of antimicrobial agents has reduced morbidity and mortality of humans and contributed substantially to human’s increased life span. The issue of antibiotic resistance has received considerable attention due to the problem of the emergence and rapid expansion of antibiotic-resistant pathogenic bacteria. Antibiotic resistance exhibited by bacteria can be intrinsic, acquired, or adaptive. Therefore, efforts to develop antibiotics and study mechanisms of resistance should be continuous, resilient and steady. In the following sections, we will focus on the molecular and biochemical mechanisms of bacterial resistance, illustrating specific situations that are often encountered in clinical practice.
Keywords
- Annweiler C, Sacco G, Salles N, Aquino JP, Gautier J, Berrut
G, Guérin O, Gavazzi G. National French Survey of Coronavirus
Disease (COVID-19) symptoms in people aged 70 and over.
Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2021 Feb 1;72(3):490-4.
2. Whitelaw S, Thabane L, Mamas MA, Reza N, Breathett K,
Douglas PS, Van Spall HG. Characteristics of heart failure trials
associated with under-representation of women as lead authors.
Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2020 Oct
27;76(17):1919-30.
3. Terpos E, Ntanasis‐Stathopoulos I, Elalamy I, Kastritis E,
Sergentanis TN, Politou M, Psaltopoulou T, Gerotziafas G,
Dimopoulos MA. Hematological findings and complications of
COVID‐19. American journal of hematology. 2020 Jul;95(7):834-
47.
4. Liu X, Zhou H, Zhou Y, Wu X, Zhao Y, Lu Y, Tan W, Yuan M,
Ding X, Zou J, Li R. Risk factors associated with disease severity
and length of hospital stay in COVID-19 patients. Journal of
Infection. 2020 Jul 1;81(1):e95-7.
5. Ahmed-Hassan H, Sisson B, Shukla RK, Wijewantha Y,
Funderburg NT, Li Z, Hayes Jr D, Demberg T, Liyanage NP. Innate
immune responses to highly pathogenic coronaviruses and other
significant respiratory viral infections. Frontiers in immunology.
2020 Aug 18;11:1979.
6. Senapati S, Kumar S, Singh AK, Banerjee P, Bhagavatula S.
Assessment of risk conferred by coding and regulatory variations
of TMPRSS2 and CD26 in susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2
infection in human. Journal of genetics. 2020 Dec;99:1-5.
7. Sieńko J, Kotowski M, Bogacz A, Lechowicz K, Drożdżal
S, Rosik J, Sietnicki M, Sieńko M, Kotfis K. COVID-19: The
influence of ACE genotype and ACE-I and ARBs on the course of
SARS-CoV-2 infection in elderly patients. Clinical Interventions
in Aging. 2020;15:1231.
8. Strafella C, Caputo V, Termine A, Barati S, Gambardella
S, Borgiani P, Caltagirone C, Novelli G, Giardina E, Cascella
R. Analysis of ACE2 genetic variability among populations
highlights a possible link with COVID-19-related neurological
complications. Genes. 2020 Jul;11(7):741.
9. Zhao Y, Zhao Z, Wang Y, Zhou Y, Ma Y, Zuo W. Single-cell
RNA expression profiling of ACE2, the receptor of SARS-CoV-2.
bioRxiv. Preprint. Posted. 2020 Apr.
10. Nguyen A, David JK, Maden SK. Human leukocyte antigen
susceptibility map for SARS-CoV-2 [published online ahead of
print April 17, 2020]. J Virol.:00510-20.
11. Guan WJ, Liang WH, Zhao Y, Liang HR, Chen ZS, Li YM,
Liu XQ, Chen RC, Tang CL, Wang T, Ou CQ. Comorbidity and its
impact on 1590 patients with COVID-19 in China: a nationwide
analysis. European Respiratory Journal. 2020 May 1;55(5).
12. Wu C, Chen X, Cai Y, Zhou X, Xu S, Huang H, Zhang L,
Zhou X, Du C, Zhang Y, Song J. Risk factors associated with
acute respiratory distress syndrome and death in patients with
coronavirus disease 2019 pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA
internal medicine. 2020 Jul 1;180(7):934-43.
13. Zhou F, Yu T, Du R, Fan G, Liu Y, Liu Z, Xiang J, Wang Y, Song
B, Gu X, Guan L. Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of
adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: a retrospective
cohort study. The lancet. 2020 Mar 28;395(10229):1054-62.
14. Reddy Gaddam R, Chambers S, Bhatia M. ACE and ACE2
in inflammation: a tale of two enzymes. Inflammation & Allergy-
Drug Targets (Formerly Current Drug Targets-Inflammation &
Allergy)(Discontinued). 2014 Aug 1;13(4):224-34.
15. Devaux CA, Rolain JM, Raoult D. ACE2 receptor
polymorphism: Susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2, hypertension,
multi-organ failure, and COVID-19 disease outcome. Journal of
Microbiology, Immunology and Infection. 2020 May 6.
16. Bean D, Kraljevic Z, Searle T, Bendayan R, Pickles A,
Folarin A, Roguski L, Noor K, Shek A, O’Gallagher K, Zakeri R.
Treatment with ACE-inhibitors is not associated with early severe
SARS-Covid-19 infection in a multi-site UK acute Hospital Trust.
ResearchGate. 2020. - 17. Tian HY. 2019-nCoV: new challenges from coronavirus.
Zhonghua yu fang yi xue za zhi [Chinese journal of preventive
medicine]. 2020 Feb 3;54:E001-.
18. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, Zhang L, Fan
G, Xu J, Gu X, Cheng Z. Clinical features of patients infected with
2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. The lancet. 2020 Feb
15;395(10223):497-506.
19. Cheng VC, Lau SK, Woo PC, Yuen KY. Severe acute
respiratory syndrome coronavirus as an agent of emerging and
reemerging infection. Clinical microbiology reviews. 2007
Oct;20(4):660-94.
20. Kim D, Lee JY, Yang JS, Kim JW, Kim VN, Chang H. The
architecture of SARS-CoV-2 transcriptome. Cell. 2020 May
14;181(4):914-21.
21. Wang N, Shi X, Jiang L, Zhang S, Wang D, Tong P, Guo D,
Fu L, Cui Y, Liu X, Arledge KC. Structure of MERS-CoV spike
receptor-binding domain complexed with human receptor DPP4.
Cell research. 2013 Aug;23(8):986-93.
22. AZIZAN E, BROWN M. ACE2 role in SARS-CoV-2
infectivity and Covid-19 severity. Malaysian Journal of Pathology.
2020 Dec 1;42(3).
23. Mitra P, Suri S, Goyal T, Misra R, Singh K, Garg MK, Misra S,
Sharma P. Association of comorbidities with coronavirus disease
2019: a review. Annals of the National Academy of Medical
Sciences (India). 2020 Jul 4.
24. Lingeswaran M, Goyal T, Ghosh R, Suri S, Mitra P, Misra
S, Sharma P. Inflammation, immunity and immunogenetics
in COVID-19: a narrative review. Indian Journal of Clinical
Biochemistry. 2020 Jul;35:260-73.
25. Qiu Y, Zhao YB, Wang Q, Li JY, Zhou ZJ, Liao CH, Ge
XY. Predicting the angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2)
utilizing capability as the receptor of SARS-CoV-2. Microbes and
infection. 2020 May 1;22(4-5):221-5.
26. Wan Y, Shang J, Graham R, Baric RS, Li F. Receptor
recognition by the novel coronavirus from Wuhan: an analysis
based on decade-long structural studies of SARS coronavirus.
Journal of virology. 2020 Mar 17;94(7):e00127-20.
27. Chen J, Jiang Q, Xia X, Liu K, Yu Z, Tao W, Gong W, Han
JD. Individual variation of the SARS‐CoV‐2 receptor ACE2 gene
expression and regulation. Aging Cell. 2020 Jul;19(7):e13168.
28. Böttcher E, Matrosovich T, Beyerle M, Klenk HD, Garten
W, Matrosovich M. Proteolytic activation of influenza viruses
by serine proteases TMPRSS2 and HAT from human airway
epithelium. Journal of virology. 2006 Oct 1;80(19):9896-8.
29. Shulla A, Heald-Sargent T, Subramanya G, Zhao J, Perlman
S, Gallagher T. A transmembrane serine protease is linked to
the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus receptor and
activates virus entry. Journal of virology. 2011 Jan 15;85(2):873-
82.
30. Heurich A, Hofmann-Winkler H, Gierer S, Liepold T, Jahn O,
Pöhlmann S. TMPRSS2 and ADAM17 cleave ACE2 differentially
and only proteolysis by TMPRSS2 augments entry driven by the
severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus spike protein.
Journal of virology. 2014 Jan 15;88(2):1293-307.
31. COVID-19 Host Genetics Initiative. The COVID-19 Host
Genetics Initiative, a global initiative to elucidate the role of host
genetic factors in susceptibility and severity of the SARS-CoV-2
virus pandemic. European Journal of Human Genetics. 2020
Jun;28(6):715.
32. Severe Covid-19 GWAS Group. Genomewide association
study of severe Covid-19 with respiratory failure. New England
Journal of Medicine. 2020 Oct 15;383(16):1522-34.
33. Esbin MN, Whitney ON, Chong S, Maurer A, Darzacq X,
Tjian R. Overcoming the bottleneck to widespread testing: a
rapid review of nucleic acid testing approaches for COVID-19
detection. Rna. 2020 Jul 1;26(7):771-83.
34. Lee S, Kim T, Lee E, Lee C, Kim H, Rhee H, Park SY, Son
HJ, Yu S, Park JW, Choo EJ. Clinical course and molecular
viral shedding among asymptomatic and symptomatic patients
with SARS-CoV-2 infection in a community treatment center
in the Republic of Korea. JAMA internal medicine. 2020 Nov
1;180(11):1447-52.
)