Document Type : Review Article
Authors
1 Genetic engineering and biotechnology Institute, Baghdad University, Iraq.
2 AmitisGen Lab, Food and Drug Administration of Iran Ministry of Health and Medical Education. Tehran, Iran
3 Master of Science in Cellular and Molecular Biology, Department of cell and Molecular Biology, Karazmi University, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common solid tumor in men. While patients with local PCa have better prognostic survival, patients with metastatic PCa have relatively high mortality rates. Exosomes (and other extracellular vesicles) are now part of the cancer research landscape, involved both as players in pathophysiological mechanisms, as biomarkers of the cancer process, and as therapeutic tools. Exosomes contain miRNAs, mRNAs, and proteins with the potential to regulate signaling pathways in recipient cells. Accumulating evidence indicates that exosomes play important roles in cell communication and tumor progression and are suitable for monitoring PCa progression and metastasis.
Keywords
1.Sasaki T, Sugimura Y. The importance of time to prostate-specific antigen (PSA) nadir after primary androgen deprivation therapy in hormone-naïve prostate cancer patients. Journal of clinical medicine. 2018 Dec;7(12):565.
2.Siegel Rebecca L, Miller Kimberly D. Jemal Ahmedin. Cancer statistics, 2019. CA: a cancer journal for clinicians. 2019;69(1):7-34.
3.Ye Y, Deng M, Zhao D, Jiang L, Chen D, Wu Z, Wang Y, Li Z, Yang Z, Li J, Zhou F. Prostate cryoablation combined with androgen deprivation therapy for newly diagnosed metastatic prostate cancer: a propensity score-based study. Prostate cancer and prostatic diseases. 2021 Sep;24(3):837-44.
4.Ingrosso G, Detti B, Scartoni D, Lancia A, Giacomelli I, Baki M, Carta G, Livi L, Santoni R. Current therapeutic options in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. InSeminars in Oncology 2018 Oct 1 (Vol. 45, No. 5-6, pp. 303-315). WB Saunders.
5.Kretschmer A, Tilki D. Biomarkers in prostate cancer–current clinical utility and future perspectives. Critical reviews in oncology/hematology. 2017 Dec 1;120:180-93.
6.Fujita K, Nonomura N. Urinary biomarkers of prostate cancer. International Journal of Urology. 2018 Sep;25(9):770-9.
7.Foj L, Ferrer F, Serra M, Arévalo A, Gavagnach M, Giménez N, Filella X. Exosomal and non‐exosomal urinary miRNAs in prostate cancer detection and prognosis. The Prostate. 2017 May;77(6):573-83.
8.Mathivanan S, Fahner CJ, Reid GE, Simpson RJ. ExoCarta 2012: database of exosomal proteins, RNA and lipids. Nucleic acids research. 2012 Jan 1;40(D1):D1241-4.
9.Fujita Y, Yoshioka Y, Ochiya T. Extracellular vesicle transfer of cancer pathogenic components. Cancer science. 2016 Apr;107(4):385-90.
10.Kumar S, Lombard DB. Functions of the sirtuin deacylase SIRT5 in normal physiology and pathobiology. Critical reviews in biochemistry and molecular biology. 2018 May 4;53(3):311-34.
11.Pullan JE, Confeld MI, Osborn JK, Kim J, Sarkar K, Mallik S. Exosomes as drug carriers for cancer therapy. Molecular pharmaceutics. 2019 Apr 5;16(5):1789-98.
12.Di C, Zhang Q, Wang Y, Wang F, Chen Y, Gan L, Zhou R, Sun C, Li H, Zhang X, Yang H. Exosomes as drug carriers for clinical application. Artificial Cells, Nanomedicine, and Biotechnology. 2018 Nov 12;46(sup3):S564-70.
13.Qin J, Xu Q. Functions and application of exosomes. Acta Pol Pharm. 2014 Mar;71(4):537-43.
14.Guo W, Gao Y, Li N, Shao F, Wang C, Wang P, Yang Z, Li R, He J. Exosomes: New players in cancer. Oncology reports. 2017 Aug 1;38(2):665-75.
15.Witwer KW, Buzás EI, Bemis LT, Bora A, Lässer C, Lötvall J, Nolte-‘t Hoen EN, Piper MG, Sivaraman S, Skog J, Théry C. Standardization of sample collection, isolation and analysis methods in extracellular vesicle research. Journal of extracellular vesicles. 2013 Jan 1;2(1):20360.
16.Théry C, Zitvogel L, Amigorena S. Exosomes: composition, biogenesis and function. Nature reviews immunology. 2002 Aug;2(8):569-79.
17.Raposo G, Nijman HW, Stoorvogel W, Liejendekker R, Harding CV, Melief CJ, Geuze HJ. B lymphocytes secrete antigen-presenting vesicles. The Journal of experimental medicine. 1996 Mar 1;183(3):1161-72.
18.Clayton A, Mason MD. Exosomes in tumour immunity. Current oncology. 2009 May;16(3):46-9.
19.Lynch S, Santos SG, Campbell EC, Nimmo AM, Botting C, Prescott A, Antoniou AN, Powis SJ. Novel MHC class I structures on exosomes. The Journal of Immunology. 2009 Aug 1;183(3):1884-91.
20.Sharrow SO, Mathieson BJ, Singer A. Cell surface appearance of unexpected host MHC determinants on thymocytes from radiation bone marrow chimeras. The Journal of Immunology. 1981 Apr 1;126(4):1327-35.
21.Huang T, Deng CX. Current progresses of exosomes as cancer diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers. International journal of biological sciences. 2019;15(1):1.
22.Soung YH, Ford S, Zhang V, Chung J. Exosomes in cancer diagnostics. Cancers. 2017 Jan;9(1):8.
23.Makler A, Narayanan R. Mining exosomal genes for pancreatic cancer targets. Cancer genomics & proteomics. 2017 May 1;14(3):161-72.
24.Boukouris S, Mathivanan S. Exosomes in bodily fluids are a highly stable resource of disease biomarkers. Proteomics–Clinical Applications. 2015 Apr;9(3-4):358-67.
25.Falcon-Perez J. Exosome profiling: potential in cancer diagnosis and stratification. InEndocrine Abstracts 2017 May 3 (Vol. 49). Bioscientifica.
26.Zhai LY, Li MX, Pan WL, Chen Y, Li MM, Pang JX, Zheng L, Chen JX, Duan WJ. In situ detection of plasma exosomal microRNA-1246 for breast cancer diagnostics by a Au nanoflare probe. ACS applied materials & interfaces. 2018 Oct 23;10(46):39478-86.
27.Villarroya-Beltri C, Baixauli F, Gutiérrez-Vázquez C, Sánchez-Madrid F, Mittelbrunn M. Sorting it out: regulation of exosome loading. InSeminars in cancer biology 2014 Oct 1 (Vol. 28, pp. 3-13). Academic Press.
28.Lázaro-Ibáñez E, Neuvonen M, Takatalo M, Thanigai Arasu U, Capasso C, Cerullo V, Rhim JS, Rilla K, Yliperttula M, Siljander PR. Metastatic state of parent cells influences the uptake and functionality of prostate cancer cell-derived extracellular vesicles. Journal of extracellular vesicles. 2017 Dec 1;6(1):1354645.
29.Kharmate G, Hosseini-Beheshti E, Caradec J, Chin MY, Tomlinson Guns ES. Epidermal growth factor receptor in prostate cancer derived exosomes. PLoS One. 2016 May 6;11(5):e0154967.
30.Vlaeminck-Guillem V. Extracellular vesicles in prostate cancer carcinogenesis, diagnosis, and management. Frontiers in oncology. 2018 Jun 13;8:222.
31.Huang X, Yuan T, Tschannen M, Sun Z, Jacob H, Du M, Liang M, Dittmar RL, Liu Y, Liang M, Kohli M. Characterization of human plasma-derived exosomal RNAs by deep sequencing. BMC genomics. 2013 Dec;14(1):1-4.
32.Wang X, Wang X, Zhu Z, Li W, Yu G, Jia Z, Wang X. Prostate carcinoma cell-derived exosomal MicroRNA-26a modulates the metastasis and tumor growth of prostate carcinoma. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy. 2019 Sep 1;117:109109.
33.Krishn SR, Singh A, Bowler N, Duffy AN, Friedman A, Fedele C, Kurtoglu S, Tripathi SK, Wang K, Hawkins A, Sayeed A. Prostate cancer sheds the αvβ3 integrin in vivo through exosomes. Matrix Biology. 2019 Apr 1;77:41-57.
34.Dai J, Escara-Wilke J, Keller JM, Jung Y, Taichman RS, Pienta KJ, Keller ET. Primary prostate cancer educates bone stroma through exosomal pyruvate kinase M2 to promote bone metastasis. Journal of Experimental Medicine. 2019 Dec 2;216(12):2883-99.
35.Osaki M, Okada F. Exosomes and their role in cancer progression. Yonago acta medica. 2019;62(2):182-90.
36.Liu CM, Hsieh CL, Shen CN, Lin CC, Shigemura K, Sung SY. Exosomes from the tumor microenvironment as reciprocal regulators that enhance prostate cancer progression. International Journal of Urology. 2016 Sep;23(9):734-44.
37.Huang X, Yuan T, Tschannen M, Sun Z, Jacob H, Du M, Liang M, Dittmar RL, Liu Y, Liang M, Kohli M. Characterization of human plasma-derived exosomal RNAs by deep sequencing. BMC genomics. 2013 Dec;14(1):1-4.
38.Steinbichler TB, Dudás J, Riechelmann H, Skvortsova II. The role of exosomes in cancer metastasis. InSeminars in cancer biology 2017 Jun 1 (Vol. 44, pp. 170-181). Academic Press.
39.Sánchez CA, Andahur EI, Valenzuela R, Castellón EA, Fullá JA, Ramos CG, Triviño JC. Exosomes from bulk and stem cells from human prostate cancer have a differential microRNA content that contributes cooperatively over local and pre-metastatic niche. Oncotarget. 2016 Jan 26;7(4):3993.
40.Lorenc T, Klimczyk K, Michalczewska I, Słomka M, Kubiak-Tomaszewska G, Olejarz W. Exosomes in prostate cancer diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2020 Jan;21(6):2118.
41.Sugatani T, Vacher J, Hruska KA. A microRNA expression signature of osteoclastogenesis. Blood, The Journal of the American Society of Hematology. 2011 Mar 31;117(13):3648-57.
42.Zhang HL, Qin XJ, Cao DL, Zhu Y, Yao XD, Zhang SL, Dai B, Ye DW. An elevated serum miR-141 level in patients with bone-metastatic prostate cancer is correlated with more bone lesions. Asian journal of andrology. 2013 Mar;15(2):231.
43.Chaffer CL, Weinberg RA. A perspective on cancer cell metastasis. science. 2011 Mar 25;331(6024):1559-64.
44.Saber SH, Ali HE, Gaballa R, Gaballah M, Ali HI, Zerfaoui M, Abd Elmageed ZY. Exosomes are the driving force in preparing the soil for the metastatic seeds: lessons from the prostate cancer. Cells. 2020 Mar;9(3):564.
45.Bijnsdorp IV, Geldof AA, Lavaei M, Piersma SR, van Moorselaar RJ, Jimenez CR. Exosomal ITGA3 interferes with non-cancerous prostate cell functions and is increased in urine exosomes of metastatic prostate cancer patients. Journal of extracellular vesicles. 2013 Jan 1;2(1):22097.
46.Yim N, Ryu SW, Choi K, Lee KR, Lee S, Choi H, Kim J, Shaker MR, Sun W, Park JH, Kim D. Exosome engineering for efficient intracellular delivery of soluble proteins using optically reversible protein–protein interaction module. Nature Communications. 2016 Jul 22;7(1):1-9.
47.Takahara K, Ii M, Inamoto T, Nakagawa T, Ibuki N, Yoshikawa Y, Tsujino T, Uchimoto T, Saito K, Takai T, Tanda N. microRNA-145 mediates the inhibitory effect of adipose tissue-derived stromal cells on prostate cancer. Stem cells and development. 2016 Sep 1;25(17):1290-8.
48.Wolfers J, Lozier A, Raposo G, Regnault A, Thery C, Masurier C, Flament C, Pouzieux S, Faure F, Tursz T, Angevin E. Tumor-derived exosomes are a source of shared tumor rejection antigens for CTL cross-priming. Nature medicine. 2001 Mar;7(3):297-303.
49.Qi H, Liu C, Long L, Ren Y, Zhang S, Chang X, Qian X, Jia H, Zhao J, Sun J, Hou X. Blood exosomes endowed with magnetic and targeting properties for cancer therapy. ACS nano. 2016 Mar 22;10(3):3323-33.
50.Saari H, Lázaro-Ibáñez E, Viitala T, Vuorimaa-Laukkanen E, Siljander P, Yliperttula M. Microvesicle-and exosome-mediated drug delivery enhances the cytotoxicity of Paclitaxel in autologous prostate cancer cells. Journal of Controlled Release. 2015 Dec 28;220:727-37.
51.Chaput N, Taïeb J, Schartz N, Flament C, Novault S, André F, Zitvogel L. The potential of exosomes in immunotherapy of cancer. Blood Cells, Molecules, and Diseases. 2005 Sep 1;35(2):111-5.
52.Viaud S, Théry C, Ploix S, Tursz T, Lapierre V, Lantz O, Zitvogel L, Chaput N. Dendritic cell-derived exosomes for cancer immunotherapy: what’s next?. Cancer research. 2010 Feb 15;70(4):1281-5.
53.Gerlinger M, Rowan AJ, Horswell S, Larkin J, Endesfelder D, Gronroos E et al. Intratumor heterogeneity and branched evolution revealed by multiregion sequencing. N Engl J Med. 2012; 366: 883–92.
54.van der Pol E, Boing AN, Harrison P, Sturk A, Nieuwland R. Classification, functions, and clinical relevance of extracellular vesicles. Pharmacol Rev. 2012; 64: 676–705.
55.Pan J, Ding M, Xu K, Yang C, Mao LJ. Exosomes in diagnosis and therapy of prostate cancer. Oncotarget. 2017 Nov 14;8(57):97693.
56.Duijvesz D, Luider T, Bangma CH, Jenster G. Exosomes as biomarker treasure chests for prostate cancer. European urology. 2011 May 1;59(5):823-31.
2.Siegel Rebecca L, Miller Kimberly D. Jemal Ahmedin. Cancer statistics, 2019. CA: a cancer journal for clinicians. 2019;69(1):7-34.
3.Ye Y, Deng M, Zhao D, Jiang L, Chen D, Wu Z, Wang Y, Li Z, Yang Z, Li J, Zhou F. Prostate cryoablation combined with androgen deprivation therapy for newly diagnosed metastatic prostate cancer: a propensity score-based study. Prostate cancer and prostatic diseases. 2021 Sep;24(3):837-44.
4.Ingrosso G, Detti B, Scartoni D, Lancia A, Giacomelli I, Baki M, Carta G, Livi L, Santoni R. Current therapeutic options in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. InSeminars in Oncology 2018 Oct 1 (Vol. 45, No. 5-6, pp. 303-315). WB Saunders.
5.Kretschmer A, Tilki D. Biomarkers in prostate cancer–current clinical utility and future perspectives. Critical reviews in oncology/hematology. 2017 Dec 1;120:180-93.
6.Fujita K, Nonomura N. Urinary biomarkers of prostate cancer. International Journal of Urology. 2018 Sep;25(9):770-9.
7.Foj L, Ferrer F, Serra M, Arévalo A, Gavagnach M, Giménez N, Filella X. Exosomal and non‐exosomal urinary miRNAs in prostate cancer detection and prognosis. The Prostate. 2017 May;77(6):573-83.
8.Mathivanan S, Fahner CJ, Reid GE, Simpson RJ. ExoCarta 2012: database of exosomal proteins, RNA and lipids. Nucleic acids research. 2012 Jan 1;40(D1):D1241-4.
9.Fujita Y, Yoshioka Y, Ochiya T. Extracellular vesicle transfer of cancer pathogenic components. Cancer science. 2016 Apr;107(4):385-90.
10.Kumar S, Lombard DB. Functions of the sirtuin deacylase SIRT5 in normal physiology and pathobiology. Critical reviews in biochemistry and molecular biology. 2018 May 4;53(3):311-34.
11.Pullan JE, Confeld MI, Osborn JK, Kim J, Sarkar K, Mallik S. Exosomes as drug carriers for cancer therapy. Molecular pharmaceutics. 2019 Apr 5;16(5):1789-98.
12.Di C, Zhang Q, Wang Y, Wang F, Chen Y, Gan L, Zhou R, Sun C, Li H, Zhang X, Yang H. Exosomes as drug carriers for clinical application. Artificial Cells, Nanomedicine, and Biotechnology. 2018 Nov 12;46(sup3):S564-70.
13.Qin J, Xu Q. Functions and application of exosomes. Acta Pol Pharm. 2014 Mar;71(4):537-43.
14.Guo W, Gao Y, Li N, Shao F, Wang C, Wang P, Yang Z, Li R, He J. Exosomes: New players in cancer. Oncology reports. 2017 Aug 1;38(2):665-75.
15.Witwer KW, Buzás EI, Bemis LT, Bora A, Lässer C, Lötvall J, Nolte-‘t Hoen EN, Piper MG, Sivaraman S, Skog J, Théry C. Standardization of sample collection, isolation and analysis methods in extracellular vesicle research. Journal of extracellular vesicles. 2013 Jan 1;2(1):20360.
16.Théry C, Zitvogel L, Amigorena S. Exosomes: composition, biogenesis and function. Nature reviews immunology. 2002 Aug;2(8):569-79.
17.Raposo G, Nijman HW, Stoorvogel W, Liejendekker R, Harding CV, Melief CJ, Geuze HJ. B lymphocytes secrete antigen-presenting vesicles. The Journal of experimental medicine. 1996 Mar 1;183(3):1161-72.
18.Clayton A, Mason MD. Exosomes in tumour immunity. Current oncology. 2009 May;16(3):46-9.
19.Lynch S, Santos SG, Campbell EC, Nimmo AM, Botting C, Prescott A, Antoniou AN, Powis SJ. Novel MHC class I structures on exosomes. The Journal of Immunology. 2009 Aug 1;183(3):1884-91.
20.Sharrow SO, Mathieson BJ, Singer A. Cell surface appearance of unexpected host MHC determinants on thymocytes from radiation bone marrow chimeras. The Journal of Immunology. 1981 Apr 1;126(4):1327-35.
21.Huang T, Deng CX. Current progresses of exosomes as cancer diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers. International journal of biological sciences. 2019;15(1):1.
22.Soung YH, Ford S, Zhang V, Chung J. Exosomes in cancer diagnostics. Cancers. 2017 Jan;9(1):8.
23.Makler A, Narayanan R. Mining exosomal genes for pancreatic cancer targets. Cancer genomics & proteomics. 2017 May 1;14(3):161-72.
24.Boukouris S, Mathivanan S. Exosomes in bodily fluids are a highly stable resource of disease biomarkers. Proteomics–Clinical Applications. 2015 Apr;9(3-4):358-67.
25.Falcon-Perez J. Exosome profiling: potential in cancer diagnosis and stratification. InEndocrine Abstracts 2017 May 3 (Vol. 49). Bioscientifica.
26.Zhai LY, Li MX, Pan WL, Chen Y, Li MM, Pang JX, Zheng L, Chen JX, Duan WJ. In situ detection of plasma exosomal microRNA-1246 for breast cancer diagnostics by a Au nanoflare probe. ACS applied materials & interfaces. 2018 Oct 23;10(46):39478-86.
27.Villarroya-Beltri C, Baixauli F, Gutiérrez-Vázquez C, Sánchez-Madrid F, Mittelbrunn M. Sorting it out: regulation of exosome loading. InSeminars in cancer biology 2014 Oct 1 (Vol. 28, pp. 3-13). Academic Press.
28.Lázaro-Ibáñez E, Neuvonen M, Takatalo M, Thanigai Arasu U, Capasso C, Cerullo V, Rhim JS, Rilla K, Yliperttula M, Siljander PR. Metastatic state of parent cells influences the uptake and functionality of prostate cancer cell-derived extracellular vesicles. Journal of extracellular vesicles. 2017 Dec 1;6(1):1354645.
29.Kharmate G, Hosseini-Beheshti E, Caradec J, Chin MY, Tomlinson Guns ES. Epidermal growth factor receptor in prostate cancer derived exosomes. PLoS One. 2016 May 6;11(5):e0154967.
30.Vlaeminck-Guillem V. Extracellular vesicles in prostate cancer carcinogenesis, diagnosis, and management. Frontiers in oncology. 2018 Jun 13;8:222.
31.Huang X, Yuan T, Tschannen M, Sun Z, Jacob H, Du M, Liang M, Dittmar RL, Liu Y, Liang M, Kohli M. Characterization of human plasma-derived exosomal RNAs by deep sequencing. BMC genomics. 2013 Dec;14(1):1-4.
32.Wang X, Wang X, Zhu Z, Li W, Yu G, Jia Z, Wang X. Prostate carcinoma cell-derived exosomal MicroRNA-26a modulates the metastasis and tumor growth of prostate carcinoma. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy. 2019 Sep 1;117:109109.
33.Krishn SR, Singh A, Bowler N, Duffy AN, Friedman A, Fedele C, Kurtoglu S, Tripathi SK, Wang K, Hawkins A, Sayeed A. Prostate cancer sheds the αvβ3 integrin in vivo through exosomes. Matrix Biology. 2019 Apr 1;77:41-57.
34.Dai J, Escara-Wilke J, Keller JM, Jung Y, Taichman RS, Pienta KJ, Keller ET. Primary prostate cancer educates bone stroma through exosomal pyruvate kinase M2 to promote bone metastasis. Journal of Experimental Medicine. 2019 Dec 2;216(12):2883-99.
35.Osaki M, Okada F. Exosomes and their role in cancer progression. Yonago acta medica. 2019;62(2):182-90.
36.Liu CM, Hsieh CL, Shen CN, Lin CC, Shigemura K, Sung SY. Exosomes from the tumor microenvironment as reciprocal regulators that enhance prostate cancer progression. International Journal of Urology. 2016 Sep;23(9):734-44.
37.Huang X, Yuan T, Tschannen M, Sun Z, Jacob H, Du M, Liang M, Dittmar RL, Liu Y, Liang M, Kohli M. Characterization of human plasma-derived exosomal RNAs by deep sequencing. BMC genomics. 2013 Dec;14(1):1-4.
38.Steinbichler TB, Dudás J, Riechelmann H, Skvortsova II. The role of exosomes in cancer metastasis. InSeminars in cancer biology 2017 Jun 1 (Vol. 44, pp. 170-181). Academic Press.
39.Sánchez CA, Andahur EI, Valenzuela R, Castellón EA, Fullá JA, Ramos CG, Triviño JC. Exosomes from bulk and stem cells from human prostate cancer have a differential microRNA content that contributes cooperatively over local and pre-metastatic niche. Oncotarget. 2016 Jan 26;7(4):3993.
40.Lorenc T, Klimczyk K, Michalczewska I, Słomka M, Kubiak-Tomaszewska G, Olejarz W. Exosomes in prostate cancer diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2020 Jan;21(6):2118.
41.Sugatani T, Vacher J, Hruska KA. A microRNA expression signature of osteoclastogenesis. Blood, The Journal of the American Society of Hematology. 2011 Mar 31;117(13):3648-57.
42.Zhang HL, Qin XJ, Cao DL, Zhu Y, Yao XD, Zhang SL, Dai B, Ye DW. An elevated serum miR-141 level in patients with bone-metastatic prostate cancer is correlated with more bone lesions. Asian journal of andrology. 2013 Mar;15(2):231.
43.Chaffer CL, Weinberg RA. A perspective on cancer cell metastasis. science. 2011 Mar 25;331(6024):1559-64.
44.Saber SH, Ali HE, Gaballa R, Gaballah M, Ali HI, Zerfaoui M, Abd Elmageed ZY. Exosomes are the driving force in preparing the soil for the metastatic seeds: lessons from the prostate cancer. Cells. 2020 Mar;9(3):564.
45.Bijnsdorp IV, Geldof AA, Lavaei M, Piersma SR, van Moorselaar RJ, Jimenez CR. Exosomal ITGA3 interferes with non-cancerous prostate cell functions and is increased in urine exosomes of metastatic prostate cancer patients. Journal of extracellular vesicles. 2013 Jan 1;2(1):22097.
46.Yim N, Ryu SW, Choi K, Lee KR, Lee S, Choi H, Kim J, Shaker MR, Sun W, Park JH, Kim D. Exosome engineering for efficient intracellular delivery of soluble proteins using optically reversible protein–protein interaction module. Nature Communications. 2016 Jul 22;7(1):1-9.
47.Takahara K, Ii M, Inamoto T, Nakagawa T, Ibuki N, Yoshikawa Y, Tsujino T, Uchimoto T, Saito K, Takai T, Tanda N. microRNA-145 mediates the inhibitory effect of adipose tissue-derived stromal cells on prostate cancer. Stem cells and development. 2016 Sep 1;25(17):1290-8.
48.Wolfers J, Lozier A, Raposo G, Regnault A, Thery C, Masurier C, Flament C, Pouzieux S, Faure F, Tursz T, Angevin E. Tumor-derived exosomes are a source of shared tumor rejection antigens for CTL cross-priming. Nature medicine. 2001 Mar;7(3):297-303.
49.Qi H, Liu C, Long L, Ren Y, Zhang S, Chang X, Qian X, Jia H, Zhao J, Sun J, Hou X. Blood exosomes endowed with magnetic and targeting properties for cancer therapy. ACS nano. 2016 Mar 22;10(3):3323-33.
50.Saari H, Lázaro-Ibáñez E, Viitala T, Vuorimaa-Laukkanen E, Siljander P, Yliperttula M. Microvesicle-and exosome-mediated drug delivery enhances the cytotoxicity of Paclitaxel in autologous prostate cancer cells. Journal of Controlled Release. 2015 Dec 28;220:727-37.
51.Chaput N, Taïeb J, Schartz N, Flament C, Novault S, André F, Zitvogel L. The potential of exosomes in immunotherapy of cancer. Blood Cells, Molecules, and Diseases. 2005 Sep 1;35(2):111-5.
52.Viaud S, Théry C, Ploix S, Tursz T, Lapierre V, Lantz O, Zitvogel L, Chaput N. Dendritic cell-derived exosomes for cancer immunotherapy: what’s next?. Cancer research. 2010 Feb 15;70(4):1281-5.
53.Gerlinger M, Rowan AJ, Horswell S, Larkin J, Endesfelder D, Gronroos E et al. Intratumor heterogeneity and branched evolution revealed by multiregion sequencing. N Engl J Med. 2012; 366: 883–92.
54.van der Pol E, Boing AN, Harrison P, Sturk A, Nieuwland R. Classification, functions, and clinical relevance of extracellular vesicles. Pharmacol Rev. 2012; 64: 676–705.
55.Pan J, Ding M, Xu K, Yang C, Mao LJ. Exosomes in diagnosis and therapy of prostate cancer. Oncotarget. 2017 Nov 14;8(57):97693.
56.Duijvesz D, Luider T, Bangma CH, Jenster G. Exosomes as biomarker treasure chests for prostate cancer. European urology. 2011 May 1;59(5):823-31.
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