Document Type : Review Article
Author
Department of Cell and Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Faculty of Biological Science and Technology, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran.
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV2) leading to COVID-19 has initiated a catastrophe for humans since December 2019. Genetic and protein similarities between SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV2 offer the same treatments for both types of virus. However, there are some sequence or structural differences between SARS-CoV2 and SARS-CoV as well as other coronaviruses that make difficulties in discovering drugs and vaccines against this novel type of virus. Therefore, it is vital to recognize protein and genetic structures of SARS-CoV2 to discover drugs which directly target this strain of coronavirus. This review presents a perspective on SARS-CoV2, it’s genetic and protein structures with a brief comparison with other coronaviruses as well as summarizing some immune responses activated against SARS-CoV2. In addition, it introduces the novel strategies to combat with COVID-19 that would be potentially effective on SARS-CoV2.
Keywords
1.Chen Y, Liu Q, Guo D. Emerging coronaviruses: genome structure, replication, and pathogenesis. Journal of medical virology. 2020; 92:418-423.
2.Liu X, Wang X-J. Potential inhibitors against 2019-nCoV coronavirus M protease from clinically approved medicines. Journal of Genetics and Genomics. 2020.
3.Chen J. Pathogenicity and transmissibility of 2019-nCoV—a quick overview and comparison with other emerging viruses. Microbes and infection. 2020.
4.Chen W-H, Strych U, Hotez PJ, Bottazzi ME. The SARS-CoV-2 vaccine pipeline: an overview. Current tropical medicine reports. 2020;1-4.
5.Li C, Yang Y, Ren L. Genetic evolution analysis of 2019 novel coronavirus and coronavirus from other species. Infection, Genetics and Evolution. 2020;104285.
6.Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, Niu P, Yang B, Wu H, Wang W, Song H, Huang B, Zhu N. Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding. The Lancet. 2020; 395:565-574.
7.Paraskevis D, Kostaki EG, Magiorkinis G, Panayiotakopoulos G, Sourvinos G, Tsiodras S. Full-genome evolutionary analysis of the novel corona virus (2019-nCoV) rejects the hypothesis of emergence as a result of a recent recombination event. Infection, Genetics and Evolution. 2020; 79:104212.
8.Wan Y, Shang J, Graham R, Baric RS, Li F. Receptor recognition by the novel coronavirus from Wuhan: an analysis based on decade-long structural studies of SARS coronavirus. Journal of virology. 2020; 94.
9.Chen Y, Guo Y, Pan Y, Zhao ZJ. Structure analysis of the receptor binding of 2019-nCoV. Biochemical and biophysical research communications. 2020.
10.Qi F, Qian S, Zhang S, Zhang Z. Single cell RNA sequencing of 13 human tissues identify cell types and receptors of human coronaviruses. Biochemical and biophysical research communications. 2020.
11.Guzzi PH, Mercatelli D, Ceraolo C, Giorgi FM. Master regulator analysis of the SARS-CoV-2/human interactome. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2020; 9:982.
12.Iwata-Yoshikawa N, Okamura T, Shimizu Y, Kotani O, Sato H, Sekimukai H, Fukushi S, Suzuki T, Sato Y, Takeda M. Acute respiratory infection in human dipeptidyl peptidase 4-transgenic mice infected with Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Journal of virology. 2019; 93:e01818-01818.
13.Te N, Vergara‐Alert J, Lehmbecker A, Pérez M, Haagmans BL, Baumgärtner W, Bensaid A, Segalés J. Co‐localization of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS‐CoV) and dipeptidyl peptidase‐4 in the respiratory tract and lymphoid tissues of pigs and llamas. Transboundary and emerging diseases. 2019; 66:831-841.
14.Lan J, Ge J, Yu J, Shan S, Zhou H, Fan S, Zhang Q, Shi X, Wang Q, Zhang L. Structure of the SARS-CoV-2 spike receptor-binding domain bound to the ACE2 receptor. Nature. 2020;1-6.
15.Shetty AK. Mesenchymal stem cell infusion shows promise for combating Coronavirus (COVID-19)-induced pneumonia. Aging and disease. 2020; 11:462.
16.Yan R, Zhang Y, Li Y, Xia L, Guo Y, Zhou Q. Structural basis for the recognition of SARS-CoV-2 by full-length human ACE2. Science. 2020; 367:1444-1448.
17.Yi Y, Lagniton PN, Ye S, Li E, Xu R-H. COVID-19: what has been learned and to be learned about the novel coronavirus disease. International journal of biological sciences. 2020; 16:1753.
18.Vankadari N, Wilce JA. Emerging COVID-19 coronavirus: glycan shield and structure prediction of spike glycoprotein and its interaction with human CD26. Emerging microbes & infections. 2020; 9:601-604.
19.Liu Z, Xiao X, Wei X, Li J, Yang J, Tan H, Zhu J, Zhang Q, Wu J, Liu L. Composition and divergence of coronavirus spike proteins and host ACE2 receptors predict potential intermediate hosts of SARS‐CoV‐2. Journal of medical virology. 2020; 92:595-601.
20.Shang J, Ye G, Shi K, Wan Y, Luo C, Aihara H, Geng Q, Auerbach A, Li F. Structural basis of receptor recognition by SARS-CoV-2. Nature. 2020;1-4.
21.Wrapp D, Wang N, Corbett KS, Goldsmith JA, Hsieh C-L, Abiona O, Graham BS, McLellan JS. Cryo-EM structure of the 2019-nCoV spike in the prefusion conformation. Science. 2020; 367:1260-1263.
22.Tai W, He L, Zhang X, Pu J, Voronin D, Jiang S, Zhou Y, Du L. Characterization of the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of 2019 novel coronavirus: implication for development of RBD protein as a viral attachment inhibitor and vaccine. Cellular & molecular immunology. 2020;1-8.
23.Xia S, Liu M, Wang C, Xu W, Lan Q, Feng S, Qi F, Bao L, Du L, Liu S. Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 (previously 2019-nCoV) infection by a highly potent pan-coronavirus fusion inhibitor targeting its spike protein that harbors a high capacity to mediate membrane fusion. Cell research. 2020; 30:343-355.
24.Ou X, Liu Y, Lei X, Li P, Mi D, Ren L, Guo L, Guo R, Chen T, Hu J. Characterization of spike glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2 on virus entry and its immune cross-reactivity with SARS-CoV. Nature communications. 2020; 11:1-12.
25.Khailany RA, Safdar M, Ozaslan M. Genomic characterization of a novel SARS-CoV-2. Gene Reports. 2020;100682.
26.Zhang L, Lin D, Sun X, Curth U, Drosten C, Sauerhering L, Becker S, Rox K, Hilgenfeld R. Crystal structure of SARS-CoV-2 main protease provides a basis for design of improved α-ketoamide inhibitors. Science. 2020; 368:409-412.
27.Chen YW, Yiu C-PB, Wong K-Y. Prediction of the SARS-CoV-2 (2019-nCoV) 3C-like protease (3CL pro) structure: virtual screening reveals velpatasvir, ledipasvir, and other drug repurposing candidates. F1000Research. 2020; 9.
28.Zhou J, Fang L, Yang Z, Xu S, Lv M, Sun Z, Chen J, Wang D, Gao J, Xiao S. Identification of novel proteolytically inactive mutations in coronavirus 3C-like protease using a combined approach. The FASEB Journal. 2019; 33:14575-14587.
29.Yang C-W, Chen M-F. Composition of human-specific slow codons and slow di-codons in SARS-CoV and 2019-nCoV are lower than other coronaviruses suggesting a faster protein synthesis rate of SARS-CoV and 2019-nCoV. Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and Infection. 2020.
30.Xu J, Zhao S, Teng T, Abdalla AE, Zhu W, Xie L, Wang Y, Guo X. Systematic comparison of two animal-to-human transmitted human coronaviruses: SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV. Viruses. 2020; 12:244.
31.Ceraolo C, Giorgi FM. Genomic variance of the 2019‐nCoV coronavirus. Journal of medical virology. 2020; 92:522-528.
32.Angeletti S, Benvenuto D, Bianchi M, Giovanetti M, Pascarella S, Ciccozzi M. COVID‐2019: the role of the nsp2 and nsp3 in its pathogenesis. Journal of medical virology. 2020.
33.Zhang C, Zheng W, Huang X, Bell EW, Zhou X, Zhang Y. Protein structure and sequence reanalysis of 2019-nCoV genome refutes snakes as its intermediate host and the unique similarity between its spike protein insertions and HIV-1. Journal of proteome research. 2020; 19:1351-1360.
34.Kumar S, Maurya VK, Prasad AK, Bhatt ML, Saxena SK. Structural, glycosylation and antigenic variation between 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) and SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV). VirusDisease. 2020;1-9.
35.Baruah V, Bose S. Immunoinformatics‐aided identification of T cell and B cell epitopes in the surface glycoprotein of 2019‐nCoV. Journal of Medical Virology. 2020; 92:495-500.
36.Amirian ES, Levy JK. Current knowledge about the antivirals remdesivir (GS-5734) and GS-441524 as therapeutic options for coronaviruses. One Health. 2020;100128.
37.Prajapat M, Sarma P, Shekhar N, Avti P, Sinha S, Kaur H, Kumar S, Bhattacharyya A, Kumar H, Bansal S. Drug targets for corona virus: A systematic review. Indian journal of pharmacology. 2020; 52:56.
38.Sekimukai H, Iwata‐Yoshikawa N, Fukushi S, Tani H, Kataoka M, Suzuki T, Hasegawa H, Niikura K, Arai K, Nagata N. Gold nanoparticle‐adjuvanted S protein induces a strong antigen‐specific IgG response against severe acute respiratory syndrome‐related coronavirus infection, but fails to induce protective antibodies and limit eosinophilic infiltration in lungs. Microbiology and Immunology. 2020; 64:33-51.
39.Robson B. Computers and viral diseases. Preliminary bioinformatics studies on the design of a synthetic vaccine and a preventative peptidomimetic antagonist against the SARS-CoV-2 (2019-nCoV, COVID-19) coronavirus. Computers in biology and medicine. 2020;103670.
40.Leng Z, Zhu R, Hou W, Feng Y, Yang Y, Han Q, Shan G, Meng F, Du D, Wang S. Transplantation of ACE2-mesenchymal stem cells improves the outcome of patients with COVID-19 pneumonia. Aging and disease. 2020; 11:216-228.
41.Yuan M, Wu NC, Zhu X, Lee C-CD, So RT, Lv H, Mok CK, Wilson IA. A highly conserved cryptic epitope in the receptor binding domains of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV. Science. 2020; 368:630-633.
42.Tian X, Li C, Huang A, Xia S, Lu S, Shi Z, Lu L, Jiang S, Yang Z, Wu Y. Potent binding of 2019 novel coronavirus spike protein by a SARS coronavirus-specific human monoclonal antibody. Emerging microbes & infections. 2020; 9:382-385.
43.Cao W, Liu X, Bai T, Fan H, Hong K, Song H, Han Y, Lin L, Ruan L, Li T. High-dose intravenous immunoglobulin as a therapeutic option for deteriorating patients with coronavirus disease 2019. In: Open forum infectious diseases (Oxford University Press US, 2020; pp. ofaa102.
44.Ortega JT, Serrano ML, Pujol FH, Rangel HR. Unrevealing sequence and structural features of novel coronavirus using in silico approaches: The main protease as molecular target. EXCLI journal. 2020; 19:400.
45.Fintelman-Rodrigues N, Sacramento CQ, Lima CR, da Silva FS, Ferreira AC, Mattos M, de Freitas CS, Soares VC, Dias SdSG, Temerozo JR. Atazanavir, alone or in combination with ritonavir, inhibits SARS-CoV-2 replication and proinflammatory cytokine production. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 2020; 64.
46.Dai W, Zhang B, Jiang X-M, Su H, Li J, Zhao Y, Xie X, Jin Z, Peng J, Liu F. Structure-based design of antiviral drug candidates targeting the SARS-CoV-2 main protease. Science. 2020; 368:1331-1335.
47.Jin Z, Du X, Xu Y, Deng Y, Liu M, Zhao Y, Zhang B, Li X, Zhang L, Peng C. Structure of M pro from SARS-CoV-2 and discovery of its inhibitors. Nature. 2020;1-5.
48.Ma-Lauer Y, Zheng Y, Malešević M, von Brunn B, Fischer G, von Brunn A. Influences of cyclosporin A and non-immunosuppressive derivatives on cellular cyclophilins and viral nucleocapsid protein during human coronavirus 229E replication. Antiviral Research. 2020; 173:104620.
49.Cozza G, Fortuna M, Meggio F, Sarno S, Kubbutat M, Totzke F, Schaechtele C, Pinna L, Olsufyeva E, Preobrazhenskaya M. Hydrophobic Derivatives of Glycopeptide Antibiotics as Inhibitors of Protein Kinases. Biochemistry (Moscow). 2018; 83:1222-1230.
50.Ohe M, Shida H, Jodo S, Kusunoki Y, Seki M, Furuya K, Goudarzi H. Macrolide treatment for COVID-19: Will this be the way forward? BioScience Trends. 2020.
51.Perinel S, Launay M, Botelho-Nevers É, Diconne É, Louf-Durier A, Lachand R, Murgier M, Page D, Vermesch R, Thierry G. Towards optimization of hydroxychloroquine dosing in intensive care unit COVID-19 patients. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2020.
52.Borenstein R, Hanson BA, Markosyan RM, Gallo ES, Narasipura SD, Bhutta M, Shechter O, Lurain NS, Cohen FS, Al-Harthi L. Ginkgolic acid inhibits fusion of enveloped viruses. Scientific reports. 2020; 10:1-12.
53.Dopazo J, Maya-Miles D, García F, Lorusso N, Calleja MÁ, Pareja MJ, López-Miranda J, Rodríguez-Baño J, Padillo J, Túnez I. Implementing personalized medicine in COVID-19 in andalusia: An opportunity to transform the healthcare system. Journal of Personalized Medicine. 2021; 11:475.
54.Schmiedel BJ, Rocha J, Gonzalez-Colin C, Bhattacharyya S, Madrigal A, Ottensmeier CH, Ay F, Chandra V, Vijayanand P. COVID-19 genetic risk variants are associated with expression of multiple genes in diverse immune cell types. Nature communications. 2021; 12:1-12.
55.Li Q, Wu J, Nie J, Zhang L, Hao H, Liu S, Zhao C, Zhang Q, Liu H, Nie L. The impact of mutations in SARS-CoV-2 spike on viral infectivity and antigenicity. Cell. 2020; 182:1284-1294. e1289.
56.Young BE, Fong S-W, Chan Y-H, Mak T-M, Ang LW, Anderson DE, Lee CY-P, Amrun SN, Lee B, Goh YS. Effects of a major deletion in the SARS-CoV-2 genome on the severity of infection and the inflammatory response: an observational cohort study. The lancet. 2020; 396:603-611.
57.Graham RL, Sparks JS, Eckerle LD, Sims AC, Denison MR. SARS coronavirus replicase proteins in pathogenesis. Virus research. 2008; 133:88-100.
58.Mousavizadeh L, Ghasemi S. Genotype and phenotype of COVID-19: Their roles in pathogenesis. Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and Infection. 2020.
59.Narayanan K, Huang C, Makino S. SARS coronavirus accessory proteins. Virus research. 2008; 133:113-121.
2.Liu X, Wang X-J. Potential inhibitors against 2019-nCoV coronavirus M protease from clinically approved medicines. Journal of Genetics and Genomics. 2020.
3.Chen J. Pathogenicity and transmissibility of 2019-nCoV—a quick overview and comparison with other emerging viruses. Microbes and infection. 2020.
4.Chen W-H, Strych U, Hotez PJ, Bottazzi ME. The SARS-CoV-2 vaccine pipeline: an overview. Current tropical medicine reports. 2020;1-4.
5.Li C, Yang Y, Ren L. Genetic evolution analysis of 2019 novel coronavirus and coronavirus from other species. Infection, Genetics and Evolution. 2020;104285.
6.Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, Niu P, Yang B, Wu H, Wang W, Song H, Huang B, Zhu N. Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding. The Lancet. 2020; 395:565-574.
7.Paraskevis D, Kostaki EG, Magiorkinis G, Panayiotakopoulos G, Sourvinos G, Tsiodras S. Full-genome evolutionary analysis of the novel corona virus (2019-nCoV) rejects the hypothesis of emergence as a result of a recent recombination event. Infection, Genetics and Evolution. 2020; 79:104212.
8.Wan Y, Shang J, Graham R, Baric RS, Li F. Receptor recognition by the novel coronavirus from Wuhan: an analysis based on decade-long structural studies of SARS coronavirus. Journal of virology. 2020; 94.
9.Chen Y, Guo Y, Pan Y, Zhao ZJ. Structure analysis of the receptor binding of 2019-nCoV. Biochemical and biophysical research communications. 2020.
10.Qi F, Qian S, Zhang S, Zhang Z. Single cell RNA sequencing of 13 human tissues identify cell types and receptors of human coronaviruses. Biochemical and biophysical research communications. 2020.
11.Guzzi PH, Mercatelli D, Ceraolo C, Giorgi FM. Master regulator analysis of the SARS-CoV-2/human interactome. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2020; 9:982.
12.Iwata-Yoshikawa N, Okamura T, Shimizu Y, Kotani O, Sato H, Sekimukai H, Fukushi S, Suzuki T, Sato Y, Takeda M. Acute respiratory infection in human dipeptidyl peptidase 4-transgenic mice infected with Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Journal of virology. 2019; 93:e01818-01818.
13.Te N, Vergara‐Alert J, Lehmbecker A, Pérez M, Haagmans BL, Baumgärtner W, Bensaid A, Segalés J. Co‐localization of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS‐CoV) and dipeptidyl peptidase‐4 in the respiratory tract and lymphoid tissues of pigs and llamas. Transboundary and emerging diseases. 2019; 66:831-841.
14.Lan J, Ge J, Yu J, Shan S, Zhou H, Fan S, Zhang Q, Shi X, Wang Q, Zhang L. Structure of the SARS-CoV-2 spike receptor-binding domain bound to the ACE2 receptor. Nature. 2020;1-6.
15.Shetty AK. Mesenchymal stem cell infusion shows promise for combating Coronavirus (COVID-19)-induced pneumonia. Aging and disease. 2020; 11:462.
16.Yan R, Zhang Y, Li Y, Xia L, Guo Y, Zhou Q. Structural basis for the recognition of SARS-CoV-2 by full-length human ACE2. Science. 2020; 367:1444-1448.
17.Yi Y, Lagniton PN, Ye S, Li E, Xu R-H. COVID-19: what has been learned and to be learned about the novel coronavirus disease. International journal of biological sciences. 2020; 16:1753.
18.Vankadari N, Wilce JA. Emerging COVID-19 coronavirus: glycan shield and structure prediction of spike glycoprotein and its interaction with human CD26. Emerging microbes & infections. 2020; 9:601-604.
19.Liu Z, Xiao X, Wei X, Li J, Yang J, Tan H, Zhu J, Zhang Q, Wu J, Liu L. Composition and divergence of coronavirus spike proteins and host ACE2 receptors predict potential intermediate hosts of SARS‐CoV‐2. Journal of medical virology. 2020; 92:595-601.
20.Shang J, Ye G, Shi K, Wan Y, Luo C, Aihara H, Geng Q, Auerbach A, Li F. Structural basis of receptor recognition by SARS-CoV-2. Nature. 2020;1-4.
21.Wrapp D, Wang N, Corbett KS, Goldsmith JA, Hsieh C-L, Abiona O, Graham BS, McLellan JS. Cryo-EM structure of the 2019-nCoV spike in the prefusion conformation. Science. 2020; 367:1260-1263.
22.Tai W, He L, Zhang X, Pu J, Voronin D, Jiang S, Zhou Y, Du L. Characterization of the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of 2019 novel coronavirus: implication for development of RBD protein as a viral attachment inhibitor and vaccine. Cellular & molecular immunology. 2020;1-8.
23.Xia S, Liu M, Wang C, Xu W, Lan Q, Feng S, Qi F, Bao L, Du L, Liu S. Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 (previously 2019-nCoV) infection by a highly potent pan-coronavirus fusion inhibitor targeting its spike protein that harbors a high capacity to mediate membrane fusion. Cell research. 2020; 30:343-355.
24.Ou X, Liu Y, Lei X, Li P, Mi D, Ren L, Guo L, Guo R, Chen T, Hu J. Characterization of spike glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2 on virus entry and its immune cross-reactivity with SARS-CoV. Nature communications. 2020; 11:1-12.
25.Khailany RA, Safdar M, Ozaslan M. Genomic characterization of a novel SARS-CoV-2. Gene Reports. 2020;100682.
26.Zhang L, Lin D, Sun X, Curth U, Drosten C, Sauerhering L, Becker S, Rox K, Hilgenfeld R. Crystal structure of SARS-CoV-2 main protease provides a basis for design of improved α-ketoamide inhibitors. Science. 2020; 368:409-412.
27.Chen YW, Yiu C-PB, Wong K-Y. Prediction of the SARS-CoV-2 (2019-nCoV) 3C-like protease (3CL pro) structure: virtual screening reveals velpatasvir, ledipasvir, and other drug repurposing candidates. F1000Research. 2020; 9.
28.Zhou J, Fang L, Yang Z, Xu S, Lv M, Sun Z, Chen J, Wang D, Gao J, Xiao S. Identification of novel proteolytically inactive mutations in coronavirus 3C-like protease using a combined approach. The FASEB Journal. 2019; 33:14575-14587.
29.Yang C-W, Chen M-F. Composition of human-specific slow codons and slow di-codons in SARS-CoV and 2019-nCoV are lower than other coronaviruses suggesting a faster protein synthesis rate of SARS-CoV and 2019-nCoV. Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and Infection. 2020.
30.Xu J, Zhao S, Teng T, Abdalla AE, Zhu W, Xie L, Wang Y, Guo X. Systematic comparison of two animal-to-human transmitted human coronaviruses: SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV. Viruses. 2020; 12:244.
31.Ceraolo C, Giorgi FM. Genomic variance of the 2019‐nCoV coronavirus. Journal of medical virology. 2020; 92:522-528.
32.Angeletti S, Benvenuto D, Bianchi M, Giovanetti M, Pascarella S, Ciccozzi M. COVID‐2019: the role of the nsp2 and nsp3 in its pathogenesis. Journal of medical virology. 2020.
33.Zhang C, Zheng W, Huang X, Bell EW, Zhou X, Zhang Y. Protein structure and sequence reanalysis of 2019-nCoV genome refutes snakes as its intermediate host and the unique similarity between its spike protein insertions and HIV-1. Journal of proteome research. 2020; 19:1351-1360.
34.Kumar S, Maurya VK, Prasad AK, Bhatt ML, Saxena SK. Structural, glycosylation and antigenic variation between 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) and SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV). VirusDisease. 2020;1-9.
35.Baruah V, Bose S. Immunoinformatics‐aided identification of T cell and B cell epitopes in the surface glycoprotein of 2019‐nCoV. Journal of Medical Virology. 2020; 92:495-500.
36.Amirian ES, Levy JK. Current knowledge about the antivirals remdesivir (GS-5734) and GS-441524 as therapeutic options for coronaviruses. One Health. 2020;100128.
37.Prajapat M, Sarma P, Shekhar N, Avti P, Sinha S, Kaur H, Kumar S, Bhattacharyya A, Kumar H, Bansal S. Drug targets for corona virus: A systematic review. Indian journal of pharmacology. 2020; 52:56.
38.Sekimukai H, Iwata‐Yoshikawa N, Fukushi S, Tani H, Kataoka M, Suzuki T, Hasegawa H, Niikura K, Arai K, Nagata N. Gold nanoparticle‐adjuvanted S protein induces a strong antigen‐specific IgG response against severe acute respiratory syndrome‐related coronavirus infection, but fails to induce protective antibodies and limit eosinophilic infiltration in lungs. Microbiology and Immunology. 2020; 64:33-51.
39.Robson B. Computers and viral diseases. Preliminary bioinformatics studies on the design of a synthetic vaccine and a preventative peptidomimetic antagonist against the SARS-CoV-2 (2019-nCoV, COVID-19) coronavirus. Computers in biology and medicine. 2020;103670.
40.Leng Z, Zhu R, Hou W, Feng Y, Yang Y, Han Q, Shan G, Meng F, Du D, Wang S. Transplantation of ACE2-mesenchymal stem cells improves the outcome of patients with COVID-19 pneumonia. Aging and disease. 2020; 11:216-228.
41.Yuan M, Wu NC, Zhu X, Lee C-CD, So RT, Lv H, Mok CK, Wilson IA. A highly conserved cryptic epitope in the receptor binding domains of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV. Science. 2020; 368:630-633.
42.Tian X, Li C, Huang A, Xia S, Lu S, Shi Z, Lu L, Jiang S, Yang Z, Wu Y. Potent binding of 2019 novel coronavirus spike protein by a SARS coronavirus-specific human monoclonal antibody. Emerging microbes & infections. 2020; 9:382-385.
43.Cao W, Liu X, Bai T, Fan H, Hong K, Song H, Han Y, Lin L, Ruan L, Li T. High-dose intravenous immunoglobulin as a therapeutic option for deteriorating patients with coronavirus disease 2019. In: Open forum infectious diseases (Oxford University Press US, 2020; pp. ofaa102.
44.Ortega JT, Serrano ML, Pujol FH, Rangel HR. Unrevealing sequence and structural features of novel coronavirus using in silico approaches: The main protease as molecular target. EXCLI journal. 2020; 19:400.
45.Fintelman-Rodrigues N, Sacramento CQ, Lima CR, da Silva FS, Ferreira AC, Mattos M, de Freitas CS, Soares VC, Dias SdSG, Temerozo JR. Atazanavir, alone or in combination with ritonavir, inhibits SARS-CoV-2 replication and proinflammatory cytokine production. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 2020; 64.
46.Dai W, Zhang B, Jiang X-M, Su H, Li J, Zhao Y, Xie X, Jin Z, Peng J, Liu F. Structure-based design of antiviral drug candidates targeting the SARS-CoV-2 main protease. Science. 2020; 368:1331-1335.
47.Jin Z, Du X, Xu Y, Deng Y, Liu M, Zhao Y, Zhang B, Li X, Zhang L, Peng C. Structure of M pro from SARS-CoV-2 and discovery of its inhibitors. Nature. 2020;1-5.
48.Ma-Lauer Y, Zheng Y, Malešević M, von Brunn B, Fischer G, von Brunn A. Influences of cyclosporin A and non-immunosuppressive derivatives on cellular cyclophilins and viral nucleocapsid protein during human coronavirus 229E replication. Antiviral Research. 2020; 173:104620.
49.Cozza G, Fortuna M, Meggio F, Sarno S, Kubbutat M, Totzke F, Schaechtele C, Pinna L, Olsufyeva E, Preobrazhenskaya M. Hydrophobic Derivatives of Glycopeptide Antibiotics as Inhibitors of Protein Kinases. Biochemistry (Moscow). 2018; 83:1222-1230.
50.Ohe M, Shida H, Jodo S, Kusunoki Y, Seki M, Furuya K, Goudarzi H. Macrolide treatment for COVID-19: Will this be the way forward? BioScience Trends. 2020.
51.Perinel S, Launay M, Botelho-Nevers É, Diconne É, Louf-Durier A, Lachand R, Murgier M, Page D, Vermesch R, Thierry G. Towards optimization of hydroxychloroquine dosing in intensive care unit COVID-19 patients. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2020.
52.Borenstein R, Hanson BA, Markosyan RM, Gallo ES, Narasipura SD, Bhutta M, Shechter O, Lurain NS, Cohen FS, Al-Harthi L. Ginkgolic acid inhibits fusion of enveloped viruses. Scientific reports. 2020; 10:1-12.
53.Dopazo J, Maya-Miles D, García F, Lorusso N, Calleja MÁ, Pareja MJ, López-Miranda J, Rodríguez-Baño J, Padillo J, Túnez I. Implementing personalized medicine in COVID-19 in andalusia: An opportunity to transform the healthcare system. Journal of Personalized Medicine. 2021; 11:475.
54.Schmiedel BJ, Rocha J, Gonzalez-Colin C, Bhattacharyya S, Madrigal A, Ottensmeier CH, Ay F, Chandra V, Vijayanand P. COVID-19 genetic risk variants are associated with expression of multiple genes in diverse immune cell types. Nature communications. 2021; 12:1-12.
55.Li Q, Wu J, Nie J, Zhang L, Hao H, Liu S, Zhao C, Zhang Q, Liu H, Nie L. The impact of mutations in SARS-CoV-2 spike on viral infectivity and antigenicity. Cell. 2020; 182:1284-1294. e1289.
56.Young BE, Fong S-W, Chan Y-H, Mak T-M, Ang LW, Anderson DE, Lee CY-P, Amrun SN, Lee B, Goh YS. Effects of a major deletion in the SARS-CoV-2 genome on the severity of infection and the inflammatory response: an observational cohort study. The lancet. 2020; 396:603-611.
57.Graham RL, Sparks JS, Eckerle LD, Sims AC, Denison MR. SARS coronavirus replicase proteins in pathogenesis. Virus research. 2008; 133:88-100.
58.Mousavizadeh L, Ghasemi S. Genotype and phenotype of COVID-19: Their roles in pathogenesis. Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and Infection. 2020.
59.Narayanan K, Huang C, Makino S. SARS coronavirus accessory proteins. Virus research. 2008; 133:113-121.
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